Foundations of Psychology
Define psychology.
The scientific study of behavior and mental processes
Who is considered the “father of psychology” and founded the first psychology lab?
Wilhelm Wundt.
What are the three stages of memory?
- Step two (draw the three stage memory model, including duration, capacity, and what is needed for sensory memory to move to short term and short term to long-term.
- Bonus: what is distirbutive practice and why is it useful?
ensory memory → Short-term/working memory → Long-term memory.
Name one type of forgetting and give an example.
ncoding failure (never stored info), Storage failure (decay), Retrieval failure (tip-of-the-tongue).
What is the difference between a research question and a hypothesis?
Research question asks broadly; hypothesis is a testable prediction about the relationship between variables.
What makes psychology a science?
It uses the scientific method to systematically study and test behavior and mental processes.
Who wrote Principles of Psychology and founded functionalism?
William James.
Define sensory memory and its capacity & duration.
Brief storage of sensory info; very large capacity; lasts less than 1 second (iconic) to a few seconds (echoic).
What are the retrieval cues?
Encoding specificity principle, serial position effect, testing effect
1. Encoding Specificity Principle
Definition: Memory is best retrieved when the context at the time of retrieval matches the context at the time of encoding.
Example: If you study in your bedroom while listening to lo-fi music, you’re more likely to recall the information accurately when you’re in your bedroom with lo-fi music playing again.
2. Serial Position Effect
Definition: The tendency to remember items at the beginning (primacy effect) and end (recency effect) of a list better than items in the middle.
Example: When trying to memorize a grocery list of 10 items, you remember the first few (milk, eggs, bread) and the last few (cereal, apples) more easily than the middle ones.
3. Testing Effect
Definition: The phenomenon where retrieving information during practice (self-testing) improves long-term memory better than simply re-reading material.
Example: A student remembers psychology terms better after making and quizzing themselves with flashcards, compared to just re-reading the textbook chapter.
What is the “gold standard” design that can establish cause-and-effect?
Experimental research.
Name the five “pillars” of psychology.
Biological, Cognitive, Developmental, Social & Personality, Mental & Physical Health.
Who was Mary Whiton Calkins, and what is she known for?
First female APA president; studied memory; denied a Harvard PhD due to gender.
What is the difference between effortful and automatic encoding?
Effortful requires conscious processing (e.g., studying); Automatic requires little or no effort (e.g., remembering your route home).
What are the three ways to measure memory (retrieval)? Give an example of each.
Recall (essay test), Recognition (multiple choice), Relearning (time to relearn info).
What does “correlation does not equal causation” mean?
A correlation shows a relationship, but does not prove one variable causes the other.
What discipline studied the mind and behavior before psychology?
Philosophy (and physiology also contributed).
Match each theory to its founder: Psychoanalysis, Behaviorism, Humanism.
Freud → Psychoanalysis; Pavlov/Watson/Skinner → Behaviorism; Rogers/Maslow → Humanism.
What are explicit vs. implicit memories, and what are their subtypes?
Explicit (conscious): semantic (facts) and episodic (events); Implicit (unconscious): procedural (skills) and classical conditioning.
What did Elizabeth Loftus demonstrate about eyewitness memory?
Memories are malleable and can be distorted by suggestion or misleading information.
Define independent and dependent variables and give an example.
Independent variable = manipulated (e.g., amount of sleep); Dependent variable = measured outcome (e.g., test scores).
What is the difference between structuralism and functionalism?
Structuralism (Wundt) studied the structure of the mind through introspection; Functionalism (James) focused on the purpose of behavior and mental processes.
Explain classical vs. operant conditioning and name who created each.
Classical conditioning (Pavlov) pairs stimuli to create responses; Operant conditioning (Skinner) uses reinforcement/punishment to shape behavior.
What role does the hippocampus play in memory?
Helps (encode/from) new explicit (episodic and semantic) long-term memories.
Name two memory-enhancing strategies and explain why they work.
Chunking, mnemonics, elaborative rehearsal, distributed practice, retrieval cues — they strengthen encoding and retrieval.
What is informed consent, and who ensures research is ethical?
Informed consent = participants know the risks/benefits and agree voluntarily; IRB (Institutional Review Board) ensures ethics.