CHAP 5
Define reflex, unconditioned stimulus, unconditioned response, conditioned stimulus, and conditioned response
Reflex: an unlearned response (ex: eye blink).
◦ Pavlov’s Experiment: Salivation in dogs
Unconditioned Stimulus (US): any stimulus that naturally elicits a reflexive behavior, because learning does not necessarily have to occur for the stimulus to control behavior.
◦ Pavlov’s experiment: food powder.
Unconditioned Response (UR): behavior elicited by the Unconditioned Stimulus (US). (Pavlov ex: Salivation)
A neutral stimulus (Pavlov ex: tone) is repeatedly paired with the US so that the US predictably follows the neutral stimulus.
Define memory and describe the 4 types of memory.
The capacity to store and retrieve information.
◦ A type of information processing.
◦ Memory allows you to have conscious access to the past.
◦ Enables you to have effortless continuity of experience from one day to the next.
(CHART)
implicit, explicit, declarative, procedural
give an example of contextual distinctiveness, mood congruence effect and state dependant learning.
Contextual Distinctiveness: the context difference between when you learned the information and when you try to recall the information will affect the serial position effect.
Mood Congruence Effect: the emotional state of the individual also may serve as an effective retrieval cue.
State Dependent Learning: a person’s state of consciousness or mood affects encoding.
Define cognition and cognitive psychology.
Cognition: A general term for all forms of knowing
◦ Includes both content (what you know) and processes (how you manipulate what you know).
Cognitive Psychology: the study of human mental processes and their role in thinking, feeling, and behaving.
Explain acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, and discrimination within the context of classical conditioning.
Acquisition: the process by which the CR is 1st elicited and gradually increases in frequency over repeated trials.
◦ The CS and the US must be paired several times before the CS reliably elicits a CR.
◦ CS and the US must be presented closely enough in time to be perceived as being related.
Extinction: occurs when the CR no longer appears in the presence of the CS.
◦ CR do not have to be permanent
◦ The CR will reappear in a weak form when the CS is presented alone again (Spontaneous Recovery)
Generalization: Once a CR has been conditioned to a certain CS, similar stimuli may also elicit the response.
◦ Pavlov example → different tones
◦ The more similar the new stimuli is to the original CS, the stronger the response will be.
Discrimination: The process by which an organism learns to respond differently to stimuli that are distinct from the CS on some dimension.
◦ Sharpened through discrimination training.
Explain the memory process.
1) Encoding: the initial processing of information that leads to representation in memory.
◦ Requires that you form mental representations to preserve the most important features of past experiences.
2) Storage: the retention over time of encoded information.
◦ Can be short-term & long-term (long term is unlimited)
3) Retrieval: the recovery of stored information at a later time.
THESE PROCESSES ALL INTERACT
What are the two ways in which we need to remember?
2 ways in which we need to remember:
◦ 1) Recall: involves the reproduction of information to which you were previously exposed.
◦ Essay questions on a test
◦ 2) Recognition: the realization that a certain stimulus event is one you have seen or heard before.
◦ Multiple choice questions on a test.
What are reaction times and why are they utilized in cognitive psychology?
F.C. Donder Studied the “speed of mental processes”
◦ Extra mental steps will often result in more time to perform a task.
◦ Used reactions times (the amount of time it takes experimental participants to perform particular tasks) to test how some cognitive processes are carried out.
Define Reinforcer and Punisher and Identify and provide an example of each type of reinforcement and punishment.
Reinforcer: a stimulus that, when made contingent on behavior, increases the probability of that behavior. (always increases the probability of a behavior occurring)
Positive Reinforcement: Application of a desirable stimulus.
◦ Strengthens responses that precede the occurrence of the desirable stimulus.
◦ ex: food, praise, stickers for completion of a task. (getting paid at work)
Negative Reinforcement: removal of an undesirable stimulus.
◦ Strengthens responses that permit escape from or avoidance of undesirable stimuli.
◦ ex: finish your assignment so your teacher (parents) will leave you alone.
Both procedures Strengthen the behavior that precedes them.
Operant Extinction occurs when reinforcement is withheld. (stop going to work if you don’t get payed)
Punisher: any stimulus that, when it is made contingent on a response, decreases the probability of that response over time.
Positive Punishment: the application of an undesirable stimulus.
◦ Weakens the response that precedes the occurrence of the stimulus.
◦ ex: hitting after doing something incorrect.
Negative Punishment: the removal or loss of a desirable stimulus.
◦ Weakens the response that leads to loss or removal of the desirable stimulus.
◦ ex: taking away a favorite toy or activity.
Describe sensory memory.
(CHART) iconic - echoic
2 Basic Properties: 1) Short-lived, 2) Easily displaced.
You are constantly receiving new sensory information and this information needs to be processed.
Your sensory memories are durable enough to give you a sense of continuity, but not strong enough to interfere with new sensory impressions.
Define concept, prototype, and schemas. (give an example of each)
Concept: mental representations of the categories formed by the individual. Represent objects, activities, properties, ideas, and relations.
car
Prototypes: are averages across a concept, which shift slightly each time a new example is encountered.
Car we immediately think of when thinking of a car
Schemas: are conceptual frameworks or clusters of knowledge regarding objects, people, and situations. They are knowledge packages that encode complex generalizations about your experiences of the structure of the environment. (much more active and complex)
◦ The average experience of situations in the environment
Describe serial and parallel processing.
Serial Processes: separate examination of each individual element in an array, one after the other. (ex. Studying vocabulary words).
Parallel Processes: entail the simultaneous examination of all elements. (ex. Listening and replying)
Use reaction times to determine whether processes are carried out in parallel or serially.
Decide if processes are parallel or serial based on the demands placed on mental resources.
Key Assumption: we have limited processing resources that must be spread over different mental tasks
◦ Your attentional processes are responsible for distributing these resources.
Compare and contrast reinforcement and punishment
Differ in important ways. Mainly in their effect on behavior:
◦ Punishment always reduces the probability of a response occurring again.
◦ Reinforcement always increases the probability of a response occurring again.
To be effective:
◦ 1) reinforcement must be contingent on behavior.
◦ 2) the context of the behavior must be defined.
◦ 3) reinforcement is more effective than punishment.
Describe short-term and working memory.
Short-term Memory (STM) is not a place but a mechanism for focusing cognitive resources on small sets of mental representations.
Associated with briefly holding on to recent experiences and with the retrieval of information from Long-Term Memory.
Has a limited capacity → 7 +/- 2 (7 plus or minus 2 – know 5-9 bits of info at once)
◦ amount that can be held in STM
The encoding of information in STM can be enhanced by rehearsal and chunking of information.
◦ Rehearsal: involves the rapid repetition of information that is designed to keep it in STM (name or phone #)
◦ Chunking: involves the grouping of information into meaningful units that can then occupy a single digit of STM.
Working Memory (WM) provides a foundation for the moment-by- moment flow of thought and action.
◦ WM is the memory resource used to accomplish tasks such as reasoning and language comprehension.
◦ WM serves as a bridge for information coming and going to and from Long-Term memory.
Explain the RCRC strategy
Read
Cover
Recite (in your own words)
Check
Utilize for studying information carefully, such as factual information.
Define controlled and automatic processing. (give an example of each)
Controlled Processes: require attention, thus exacting greater demand. (first learning how to drive)
Automatic Processing: generally do not require attention and can often be performed along with other tasks w/o interference.
(driving after 2+years) (brushing teeth)
Controlled processes can become automatic.
Identify and describe the 4 factors in observational learning.
(the chart)
1 - Attention
2 - Retention
3 - product processes
4 - motivation
Identify and describe the 3 components of working memory.
3 Components of WM:
◦ 1) Phonological Loop: holds and manipulates speech-based information.
◦ 2) Visuospatial Sketchpad: manipulates visual and spatial information.
◦ 3) Central Executive: directs attention, initiates decisions, and handles the essential tasks of learning, comprehending, reasoning, and language.
explain the SQ3R method
Read: carefully read the material for
comprehension.
Recite: speak aloud about what you have just read.
◦ Either to yourself or someone else.
Review: come back to the material later and
review.
◦ Review the notes you have made.
◦ Return to your questions.
What is Eugenics?
Eugenics: the improvement of living organisms through selective breeding.