Sensation/Perception
What is the difference between the difference threshold and the absolute threshold?
difference threshold = aka just noticeable difference; detecting a change in stimulus 50% of the time
absolute threshold = ability to detect (based on 50% correct rate); detecting presence of stimulus
Name a few sleep disorders and describe them.
sleep walking = movement while unconscious
narcolepsy = sudden onset of sleep during waking hours (think "sleep attack")
sleep apnea = stops in breathing; increases vulnerability to heart disease
insomnia = "normal" amount of sleep is difficult to obtain; most common sleep disorder
What is the law of effect?
responses that produce a satisfying effect are more likely to occur again; responses that produce a discomforting effect become less likely to occur again
Name and describe the three stages of memory.
1. encoding = process of taking information from the world and converting it into memories
2. storage = maintenance of the information encoded in our brain for later access
3. retrieval = occurs when we access information stored in the brain from past experience
What is the premack principle?
idea that activities individuals frequently engage in can be used to reinforce activities that they are less inclined to do (ex: grandma’s rule - can’t eat dessert until you eat your vegetables)
What is the difference between a binocular and monocular cue?
binocular = using information from both eyes
monocular = using information from one eye
What are the two major theories of dreaming? Describe/explain each.
1. cognitive problem solving theory = dreams allow an opportunity to work through life's problems; problem is that some dreams are so random
2. activation synthesis model = dreams are just by-products of neural activity; problem is that some dreams are outside of REM sleep and they're not always random
What is higher-order conditioning?
using a previously conditioned stimulus to condition something else (ex: pavlov conditions tone to signify food, then makes an association between the tone and a flashing light to condition the flashing light, too)
What are the serial position effects?
primacy = remember the first things in a list
recency = remember the last things in a list
What are the four types of waves?
1. beta = normal waking; low voltage, high frequency
2. alpha = deep relaxation/meditation
3. theta = light sleep
4. delta = deep sleep
What is inattentional blindness? Give an example of it.
failure to perceive things we don't attend to; example is the gorilla in the basketball video
1. controlled processes = thinking to the highest level of concentration possible (ex: learning to drive a car for the first time, playing chess, taking an exam)
2. automatic processes = less attention to complexities (ex: typing)
3. lowered awareness = not completely controlled, still sleepy/out of it, not quite focused (ex: meditation)
Describe habituation, sensitization, and dishabituation.
- habituation = organism's reflexive response to a repeated stimulus becomes weaker
- sensitization = organism's reflexive response to a repeated stimulus becomes stronger
- dishabituation = recovery of a response that has gone through habituation, usually as a result of the presentation of a novel stimulus
What is the misinformation effect?
What is instinctive drift?
reverting back of a conditioned response to innate response patterns
What is change blindness? Give an example of it.
failure to perceive changes we do not attend to; example is the changing of the background curtain in the basketball video
1. immobilization = benefits to being stationary; resetting yourself
2. conservation = saving energy and resources
3. restoration = revitalizing cognitive processes
Describe the four different types of consequences related to operant conditioning and give an example of each.
positive reinforcement = adding positive stimulus to increase behavior (ex: good grades --> ice cream)
negative reinforcement = removing negative stimulus to increase behavior (ex: good grades --> less chores)
positive punishment = adding negative stimulus to decrease behavior (ex: bad grades --> more chores)
negative punishment = removing positive stimulus to decrease behavior (ex: bad grades --> no more ice cream)
What is state-dependent retrieval?
increased likelihood of remembering when a person is in the same mental state during both encoding and retrieval
Define the following terms related to classical conditioning:
- unconditioned stimulus
- unconditioned response
- neutral stimulus
- conditioned stimulus
- conditioned response
- acquisition
- extinction
- generalization
- discrimination
- spontaneous recovery
- unconditioned stimulus = stimulus that produces a reflexive response without any prior learning
- unconditioned response = response that is automatically generated by the unconditioned stimulus
- neutral stimulus = stimulus that has no association
- conditioned stimulus = had no prior association (aka: used to be neutral stimulus), but comes to elicit a response after being associated with the unconditioned stimulus
- conditioned response = occurs in the presence of the conditioned stimulus after an association has been made between the conditioned and unconditioned stimulus
- acquisition = initial learning of an association between a conditioned and unconditioned stimulus
- extinction = weakening of the conditioned response to the conditioned stimulus in the absence of the unconditioned stimulus
- generalization = tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus
- discrimination = learning to respond to a specific stimulus but not similar stimuli
- spontaneous recovery = reappearance of an extinct behavior after a delay
Describe the two aspects of the gate control theory.
1. spinal cord as gatekeeper = body tissue is damaged allows more impulses to open the gate
2. brain as gatekeeper = allowing some to continue through pain (ex: athletes, military)
What is the global workspace hypothesis?
conscious awareness arises from synchronized activity, from across various brain regions, that is integrated into coherent representations of an experience
What are the two examples of cognitive-social learning theories?
1. insight learning = sudden realization of how a problem can be solved; just figuring it out, not necessarily learning or mimicking
2. latent learning = hidden learning that exists without behavioral signs; example is cognitive maps
What are the five theories of forgetting that we discussed in class?
1. decay theory = use it or lose it; memory is stored in the form of connections between neurons; connections can deteriorate over time especially if not used
2. interference theory = competing memories; retroactive v. proactive
3. motivated forgetting = forgetting on purpose
4. encoding failure = information was never recorded
5. retrieval failure = it's there, but just not available
What is a continuous reinforcement schedule? How does it correlate with acquisition and extinction?
behavior is rewarded every time it occurs; rapid acquisition but also rapid extinction