Animal Organization
What is the difference between cell determination and cell differentiation?
Determination is when a cell becomes committed to a specific cell type. Differentiation is when it develops the characteristics and functions of that cell type.
What are the three primary functions of nutrients in the body?
Providing energy, structural support, and regulation of body processes.
What type of bond connects amino acids together to form proteins?
Peptide bonds
What is the term for the wave-like muscular contractions that move food through the esophagus?
Peristalsis
What is the primary function of the gizzard in birds?
Mechanical digestion (grinding feed).
What are the two main differences between DNA and mRNA nucleotides?
DNA contains deoxyribose sugar and thymine, while mRNA contains ribose sugar and uracil.
What is the difference between an essential and a nonessential nutrient?
Essential nutrients must come from the diet, while nonessential nutrients can be synthesized by the animal in sufficient amounts.
What is the primary form in which lipids are consumed in the diet and stored in the body?
Triglycerides
What is the difference between mechanical and chemical digestion?
Mechanical digestion physically breaks down food, while chemical digestion uses acids and enzymes to break down nutrients.
What is the difference between a carnivore and an herbivore in terms of digestive tract anatomy?
Carnivores generally have shorter digestive tracts, while herbivores have longer or more specialized digestive tracts to process more fibrous diets.
What are the four stages of mitosis in order, and what happens during each stage?
1. Prophase: Chromosomes condense, and the nuclear membrane breaks down.
2. Metaphase: Chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell.
3. Anaphase: Sister chromatids separate and move to opposite ends of the cell.
4. Telophase: Two nuclei form, followed by cytokinesis to produce two daughter cells.
Which nutrient provides the most energy per gram, and approximately how much usable energy does it provide?
Lipids, approx. 9 kcal/g.
What is the difference between saturated and unsaturated fatty acids in terms of their structure?
Saturated fatty acids contain no carbon-carbon double bonds, while unsaturated fatty acids contain one or more double bonds.
What is the primary site of nutrient absorption in the digestive tract?
The small intestine
What is the difference between pre-gastric and post-gastric fermentation?
Pre-gastric fermentation occurs before the glandular stomach, while post-gastric fermentation occurs after it.
If the DNA template strand has the sequence 3′-TAC GGA CTT-5′, what is the complementary mRNA sequence?
5′-AUG CCU GAA-3′
Why is taurine considered an essential nutrient for obligate carnivores (cats), but not for most other animals?
Obligate carnivores cannot synthesize sufficient taurine from cysteine, so they must obtain it through their diet. Most other animals can synthesize taurine themselves.
What is the difference between fat-soluble and water-soluble vitamins in terms of how they are stored in the body?
Fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K) can be stored in fat and the liver, whereas water-soluble vitamins are generally not stored in large amounts and require more regular dietary replenishment.
What are the functions of parietal cells and chief cells in the stomach?
Parietal cells secrete hydrochloric acid (HCl), while chief cells produce pepsinogen, which is activated in the acidic environment
Cows and horses both consume high-fiber diets. Where does microbial fermentation primarily occur in each animal?
Cows: rumen and reticulum
Horses: large intestine (cecum and colon)
Why can a muscle cell and a neuron contain the same DNA but have different structures and functions?
Differential gene expression. Different genes are turned on or off, producing proteins that let cells perform specialized functions.
What are the four primary ways animals lose water from their bodies, and which two are particularly important for thermoregulation?
Urination
Defecation
Respiration (thermoregulation)
Perspiration (thermoregulation)
Why are both deficiencies and toxicities a concern with minerals?
Name one mineral discussed in class that can cause both, and give an example of each.
Minerals must be maintained within appropriate ranges, and some have a narrow range between deficiency and toxicity.
Examples:
1. Selenium: Deficiency can cause white muscle disease. Toxicity can cause hair and hoof loss.
2. Copper: Deficiency can cause swayback or loss of hair/wool color. Toxicity can cause jaundice.
Why does taking NSAIDs increase the risk of stomach upset and stomach ulcers?
NSAIDs inhibit prostaglandins, which stimulate protective mucus secretion. Without sufficient mucus, the stomach lining becomes more susceptible to damage.
Why does the location of microbial fermentation affect an animal's ability to utilize microbial protein?
Foregut fermenters can digest microbial protein and absorb the resulting amino acids in the small intestine. Hindgut fermenters produce microbial protein after the small intestine, limiting its availability for absorption.