Cardiovascular
What are the layers of the heart? Describe each.
1. Fibrous Pericardium: Outermost layer, Tough fibrous connective tissue, For protection & connecting the heart to the diaphragm.
2. Serous Pericardium: 2 Layers (Parietal & Serous), Contains a pocket of fluid between the two layers, Acts as a lubricant, and reduces friction/heat
3. Myocardium: Muscle layer of the heart, This layer contributes to contractions
4. Endocardium: Layer closest to lumen of heart, Protects valves and heart chambers
True/False: The left lung has more lobes than the right lung because the heart needs increased oxygen, and it is on the left side of the mediastinum.
(If False, Explain)
False, The left lung has fewer lobes than the right lung because there is less space on the left side due to the heart being on that side of the mediastinum.
Where in the body does blood come from? List specific parts of the body.
Comes from the following locations: Skull, Ribs, Sternum, Vertebral Column, Pelvis, Femur
What are the functions of the lymph system?
1. Removal of excess tissue fluids (plasma)
2. Waste material transport
3. Filtration of Lymph
4. Transport of proteins
Define the following:
1. Eupnea
2. Apnea
3. Dyspnea
4. Tachypnea
5. Coastal Breathing
6. Diaphragmatic Breathing
1. Normal, quiet, breathing
2. Temporary cessation of breathing
3. Difficult or labored breathing
4. Rapid breathing
5. Just rib activity involved
6. Descent of diaphragm causes stomach to bulge during inspiration
What is the Mediastinum? What is its purpose?
- The intrapleural space between the pleural cavities where the heart lies
- This space also holds the trachea, esophagus, and other vascular structures
What is the purpose of goblet cells in the respiratory system?
Their purpose is to produce mucous (mucin) that traps dust and moistens and warms the air
What is hemostasis? What are the three parts of hemostasis?
- Hemostasis is the balance of blood
- 3 Parts:
- Maintenance of proper blood pressure
- Ability of blood to clot
- Maintenance of proper cellular components
Describe the Tonsils and Thymus.
1. Tonsils: Prevent the spread of infection into the respiratory and digestive system; Lacks a capsule; Contain mature lymphocytes that fight infection; Non-essential organ
2. Thymus: Largest at birth and decreases with age; Helps kickstart the adaptive immune system; Helps produce T Cells
How are Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide transported?
1. Oxygen is carried via hemoglobin that binds to the oxygen -> Creating oxyhemoglobin
2. Can be transported 3 ways:
- Dissolved in plasma
- Combined with hemoglobin forming carbaminohemoglobin
- As apart of a bicarbonate ion
1. What term refers to the heart contraction? Relaxation?
2. The valves of the heart are ....... (active/passive)
3. What is the formula for calculating cardiac output?
1. Systole is Contraction & Diastole is Relaxation
2. Passive
3. Q = HR X SV (HR = Heart Rate) (SV = Stroke Volume)
Describe the pleura membrane and cavity.
1. Pleura Cavity: Space between the ribs and lungs
2. Visceral Pleura: Covers the lungs
3. Parietal Pleura: Lines the ribcage & Covers the upper surface of the diaphragm
Describe how Platelets are created. What are their purposes?
- They form via Thrombopoiesis
- Unipotent stem cells differentiate into megakaryocytes and pieces of megakaryocyte are released into the peripheral circulation (transport of blood and tissues) as platelets
- Function:
- Help form blood
- Help clot blood and slow down bleeding
- Help wounds heal
How does lymph form?
What is the difference between the following:
1. Pulmonary Respiration and Cellular Respiration
1. Pulmonary Respiration: Exchange of O2/CO2 between pulmonary circulation and outside air; Act of breathing and exchanging gases with blood
Cellular Respiration: Exchange of CO2/O2 between a cell and its environment; Occurs in tissues
1. What type of tissue is blood?
2. Describe the Frank-Starling Relationship.
3. What percent of body weight is blood?
1. Connective Tissue
2. States that stroke volume and strength of contraction have a positive correlation. AKA: the stronger the contraction, the more blood is pushed out.
3. 9% of body weight
Describe the structures within a lobule of a lung.
- Primary Bronchi branch into Secondary Bronchi which branch into Tertiary Bronchi which branch into Bronchioles that end with Terminal Bronchioles
- Each terminal bronchiole has multiple alveolar ducts which have alveolar sacs attached
- Each terminal bronchiole and alveolar sac is supplied with a single arteriole and venule wrapped in elastic CT
Describe the lifecycle of a Red Blood Cell. (Be Specific)
- Kidneys detect reduced O2 carrying capacity of blood and they respond by secreting erythropoietin into the bloodstream. Erythropoietin stimulates erythropoiesis in the red bone marrow. This process creates red blood cells and releases them into the bloodstream until O2 carrying capacity increases. Once the RBC reaches the end of its life in the blood they go through Hemolysis.
Describe the difference between Innate and Adaptive Immunity. BE DETAILED
- Innate Immunity:
-Born with the immunity (Genetic)
- Passed from mother during the gestation period
- 1st line of defense against any antigen
- Defends using Phagocytosis (eat it) or Cytotoxic (injecting it with something to kill it)
- Quick response to antigen entering the body
- No specific and does not have any knowledge about antigens
- Adaptive Immunity:
- Develops over your lifetime
- Cells learn how to fight certain antigens most effectively
- They learn by being exposed to them in the past (Learn antigens weaknesses)
- Slower to be activated and respond but they are more effective at killing them
Describe the 4 different laws discussed.
1. Boyle's Law: As the size of closed container decreases, pressure inside is increased
2. Henry's Law: The quantity of gas that will dissolve in a liquid depends upon the amount of gas present and the solubility coefficient
3. Dalton's Law: Each gas in a mixture of gases exerts its own pressure
4. Bohr Effect: As acidity (blood pH lowers) increases, O2 affinity for Hb decreases
Describe how the heart beats. Include how blood flows, electrical currents, internal structures, etc. (Lots of detail)
- Deoxygenated blood flows into the Right Atrium through the Superior or Inferior Vena Cava. The Sinoatrial Node receives an electrical impulse. This causes the R Atrium to contract and push blood through the Tricuspid Valve into the Right Ventricle. The Atrioventricular Node receives the electrical impulse from the SA Node, splits it, and sends part of it to the Purjinke Fibers & Bundle of HIS. These cause the R Ventricle to contract and push blood up through the Pulmonary Valve. The blood exits the heart via the Pulmonary Artery to go to the lungs to get oxygenated. Oxygenated blood comes back to the heart via the Pulmonary Veins, and enters the Left Atrium. Another electrical impulse arrives at the SA Node. This causes the L Atrium to contract and push blood through the Bicuspid Valve into the Left Ventricle. The Atrioventricular Node receives the electrical impulse from the SA Node, splits it, and sends part of it to the Purjinke Fibers & Bundle of HIS. This causes the L Ventricle to contract and push blood up through the Aortic Valve. Blood exits the heart through the Aorta and goes to the rest of the body.
Describe what each part of the respiratory system is composed of. What type of tissue, cells, etc. for each? (Start with Pharynx, end with Bronchi/Lungs)
1. Pharynx: Skeletal Muscle
2. Larynx: Epiglottis -> Elastic Cartilage
3. Trachea: Mucosa- Pseudostratified columnar epithelial tissue; Submucosa- Loose connective tissue; Hyaline Cartilage rings
4. Bronchi/Lungs: Pseudostratified ciliated columnar neart top, transitions to nonciliated simple cuboidal as it passes deeper into lungs
List all of the cells that can be found in blood/lymph. Describe the function, origin, immune function, and organs associated with each. (HINT. 11)
1. RBC: Oxygenate tissues & carry CO2 away from tissues; Created in RBM; Innate immune function
2. Platelet: Contain clotting factors; Originates in the bone marrow; Both immune functions
3. Monocyte: Matures to macrophages that regulates inflammation; Originates in bone marrow; Innate immune function
4. Neutrophil: Phagocytic function; Highest % during immune response; Innate immune cells; Originate in bone marrow
5. Eosinophil: Regulation of allergic & tissue response, Phagocytic nature; Originate in the bone marrow; Innate immune function
6. Basophil: Allergy response; Contain anti-clotting agents; Innate immune function; Originate in bone marrow
7. B Cell: Produce specific antibodies; Originate in the bone marrow; Adaptive immune function; Circulate ONLY the lymph system
8. Killer T Cell: Attach to antigens and destroy them; Adaptive immune function; Originate in the bone marrow; Circulate the peripheral blood circulation
9. Helper T Cell: Secrete cytokines to activate macrophages; Adaptive immune function; Circulate the peripheral blood circulation; Originate in bone marrow
10. Suppressor T Cell: Regulate the production of other 2 T Cells; Adaptive immune function; Develop in the Thymus.
11. NK Cell: Identify and kill tumors and other infected cells; Adaptive immune function; Originate in the bone marrow and some other sites such as lymph nodes, thymus, or spleen.
1. Describe how a memory response works.
2. Describe the different types of immunity.
1. Both T and B cells can become memory cells; Macrophages kill a virus for the first time and B and T cells take the antigen and produce memory cells. The memory cells wait in circulating blood or lymph nodes and wait for a second infection of the same antigen that initially caused them to form.
2. Active Immunity: When an animal is exposed to a small amount of antigen to create a memory immune resposne (EX: Vaccines)
Passive Immunity: Can either get it from Colostrum, which is antibody rich first milk produced by a mother that goes to their calf, or through a Plasma Transplant which provides immunoglobulins
1. How is breathing controlled?
2. What is the composition of the three types of air? (Which has more N2, O2, CO2)
3. What happens during inspiration and expiration?
1. Controlled by the respiratory center in the brain stem, specifically the pons and medulla oblongata that contain central chemoreceptors
2. Air - Most O2, Least CO2, Equivalent N2; Alveolar Air - Least O2, Most CO2, Equivalent N2; Expired Air - Equivalent CO2
3. Inspiration: Intrathoracic pressure falls, ribs lifted by muscles, diaphragm contracts
Expiration: Passive process - no muscles, Alveolar pressure increases, air is pushed out