Muscles
Endocrine System Pt. 1
Endocrine System Pt. 2
Lymphatic/Immune System
Nervous System
100
List the criteria for naming muscles (there are 8)
What is location, shape, relative size, direction of fascicles and muscle fibers, location of attachment, number of origins, and action
100
List the major endocrine organs, and describe their locations
Pineal gland- diencephelons of the brain (produces melatonin) Thyroid gland- in the neck around the larynx (Thyroid hormones and calcitonin) Thymus- in the mediastinum behind sternum (produces thymosin) Pituitary gland- located underneathe the hypothalamus (anterior-6 hormones(growth, prolactin, thryoid stimulating hormone, follicle stimulating hormone, luteinizing hormone,adrenocorticotropic hormone) posterior-2 hormones (oxytosin and antidihheretic hormone) Adrenal gland- located on superior portion of each kidney (produces steriods (mineralcorticoids, glucocorticoids, in medulla cortex and fight or flight hormones like norepinephrine and epinephrine in the adrenal medulla)
100
Name the basic divisions of the pituitary gland.
The anterior and posterior pituitary gland
100
List and explain the important functions of lymphatic vessels.
Collect excess tissue fluid and blood proteins Return tissue fluid and blood proteins to bloodstream
100
List the main functions of the nervous system
1. Sensory: sensory receptors monitor changes inside and outside the body Stimulus—changes detected inside or outside the body Sensory input—information gathered by receptors 2. Integration: process and interpret sensory input Integration—term for interpreting input 3. Motor: dictates a response by activating effector organs Motor output—is the response
200
Which muscles are used for intramuscular injections and why?
Deltoid, vastus lateralis, gluteus medius. These muscles are thick and allow for medication to be absorbed into the bloodstream quickly.
200
Describe the basic interaction between hormones and their target cells.
A target cell responds to a hormone because it bears receptors for the hormone. In other words, a particular cell is a target cell for a hormone if it contains functional receptors for that hormone, and cells which do not have such a receptor cannot be influenced directly by that hormone. Describe three mechanisms that control hormone
200
Describe three mechanisms that control hormone secretion.
1. Humoral stimulus—simplest of endocrine control mechanisms 1. Secretion in direct response to changing ion or nutrient levels in the blood 2. For example, the parathyroid gland monitors calcium levels 1. Responds to decline by secreting hormone to reverse decline 2. Neural stimulus ¥ Sympathetic nerve fibers stimulate cells in the adrenal medulla ¥ Induces release of epinephrine and norepinephrine 3. Hormonal stimulus ¥ Stimuli received from other glands ¥ Certain hormones signal secretion of other hormones ¥ Hypothalamus secretes hormones stimulates pituitary stimulates other glands
200
Explain how lymph forms and the mechanisms by which it is transported.
The lymph is formed when the interstitial fluid (the fluid which lies in the interstices of all body tissues) is collected through lymph capillaries. It is transported via lymph vessels, capillaries, trunk, and ducts.
200
List the six types of neuroglia in nervous tissue, and distinguish them by location and function.
In CNS: Astrocytes, Microglia, Ependymal, Oligodendrocyte In PNS: Schwann Cell, Satellite Cell
300
Identify the general action of the muscles in each compartment, and name the muscles located in each compartment.
Upper Limb: Anterior compartment:Flexors (biceps brachii, flexor carpi radialis) Posterior compartment: Extensors (triceps brachii, extensor digitorum) Lower Limb: Anterior compartment: Extensors (quadriceps femoris, tibialis anterior) Posterior compartment: Flexors (hamstrings, gastrocnemius)
300
State the basic functions of each anterior pituitary hormone and the target.
Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) 1. Signals thyroid gland to secrete thyroid hormone Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) 2. Stimulates the adrenal cortex to secrete hormones that help cope with stress 2 Gonadotropins (gonad = ovaries and testes) FSH = Follicle Stimulating Hormone LH = Luteinizing Hormone 3. FSH and LH act on the gonads (ovaries & testes) 4. Have different effects on males and females 1. females: FSH and LH stimulate maturation of egg-containing ovarian follicles and secretion of hormones from the ovary 2. males: FHS stimulates maturation of sperm, LH signals secretion of androgens Growth hormone (GH) Stimulates body growth by stimulating 3. increased protein production in muscles 4. increased growth of epiphyseal plates on bones 5. most body cells to increase in size and divide Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH) 5. In humans, MSH functions in appetite suppression Prolactin (PRL) 6. Targets milk-producing glands in the breast—stimulates milk production
300
Describe the posterior lobe and the functions of the hormones it releases
Is structurally part of the brain. Its axons make up the hypothalamohypophyseal tract 1. Arises from neuronal cell bodies in the hypothalamus The posterior lobe does not make hormones it is not glandular tissue, thus cannot make hormones. It stores and releases hormones made in the hypothalamus. ¥ ADH (vasopressin) ¥ Made in supraoptic nucleus ¥ Targets kidneys to reabsorb water ¥ Oxytocin ¥ Produced in the paraventricular nucleus ¥ Induces smooth muscle contraction of reproductive organs, ejects milk during breast-feeding, and signals contraction of the uterus during childbirth
300
Describe the function, recirculation, and activation of lymphocytes.
• Lymphocytes effectively recognize a specific foreign molecule. Antigens are any molecules inducing a response from a lymphocyte. • Cytotoxic T cells: A special type of T cell, Attack foreign cells directly, Bind to antigen-bearing cells, Perforate cell membrane, Signal cell to undergo apoptosis apoptosis = programmed cell death, Destroy virus-infected cells & some cancer cells; B cells: Become plasma cells, Plasma cells secrete antibodies, Antibodies mark cells for destruction by macrophages, Respond primarily to bacteria and bacterial toxins • Activated lymphocytes: Are able to recognize a unique antigen, Gain immunocompetence, Travel through bloodstream, Meet and bind to a specific antigen, Proliferate rapidly, B cells become plasma cells and secrete antibodies, Cytotoxic T cells kill cells. • During activation: Lymphocyte is presented its antigen by A macrophage or A dendritic cell; these cells are antigen-presenting cells (APCs)
300
Describe the structural link between the peripheral nervous system and the central nervous system.
gray matter surrounds the hollow central cavity of CNS; site where neural cell bodies are clustered (neuron cell bodies, dendrites, short neurons and neuroglia); complex series of highway interchanges; structural link between PNS and CNS
400
Describe the different fascicle arrangements that occur in skeletal muscles. Identify an example of a muscle with each arrangement.
1. Circular (orbicularis oris)- arranged in concentric rings 2. Convergent (pectoralis major)- converge toward the tendon of insertion 3. Parallel (sartorius)- run parallel to the long axis of the muscle (straplike) 4. Fusiform (biceps brachii)- tapering at both ends 5. Unipennate (extensor digitorum longus) insert into one side of tendon 6. Bipennate (rectus femoris)-insert into the tendon from both sides 7. Multipennate (deltoid)- insert into large tendon from all sides
400
Describe the function of parathyroid hormone, thyroid hormone, and calcitonin.
1. Thyroid hormone (TH) increases metabolic rate release is stimulated by TSH 2. Calcitonin decreases blood Ca2+ levels when it’s too high 3. Parathyroid hormone (PTH) Increases blood concentration of Ca2+ when it’s too low
400
Describe the endocrine functions of the pineal gland, pancreas, thymus and gonads.
¥ Pineal Gland: Secretes melatonin, which regulates circadian rhythms ¥ Pancreas: Alpha cells ( cells)—secrete glucagon Beta cells ( cells)—secrete insulin ¥ Thymus: Thymic hormones help T lymphocytes (a type of WBC) to mature Gonads: Testosterone in Males/ Estrogen and Progesterone in Females
400
Relate the structure of lymphoid tissue to its infection-fighting function.
DOUBLE JEOPARDY!!
400
Explain the structural and functional divisions of the nervous system.
Central nervous system (CNS) Composed of the brain and spinal cord It’s the integrating and command center ¥ Peripheral nervous system (PNS) ¥ Consists of nerves extending from brain and spinal cord ¥ Cranial nerves and spinal nerves ¥ Peripheral nerves link all regions of the body to the CNS
500
Describe the three types of lever systems by which muscles function, and indicate the relative positions of effort, fulcrum and load in each.
1. First-class lever: LFE Load-Fulcrum-Effort: raises your head off of your chest. 2. Second-class lever: FLE Fulcrum-Load-Effort: uncommon but used when standing on tip-toes. mechanical advantage 3. Third-class lever: LEF Load-Effort-Fulcrum: flexing forearm by biceps brachii/dumbbell curl
500
Name the two division of the adrenal gland; name the hormones that are released from each region and the function of those hormones.
Cells of the adrenal medulla secrete epinephrine and norepinephrine 1. Enhance “fight-or-flight” response 2. Hormones are stored in secretory vesicles Adrenal Cortex ¥ Aldosterone—is a mineralcorticoid secreted by the outer cortex ¥ Secreted in response to decline in blood volume or blood pressure ¥ Causes kidneys to reabsorb more Na+, thus more water increases blood volume and BP ¥ Cortisol is the main type of glucocorticoid ¥ Secreted by middle and inner cortex layers ¥ Helps the body deal with stressful situations ¥ thus not meant to be released for extended periods of time ¥ but if you’re stressed out all the time, you are releasing cortisol
500
Briefly explain the endocrine functions of the kidney and heart.
Heart 1. Atria contain atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) 1. released when blood volume is too high Kidney ¥ Cells of the juxtaglomerular complex (JGA) secrete renin when blood volume is too low ¥ Endothelial cells and interstitial connective tissue—secrete erythropoietin when blood O2 levels are low
500
Describe the locations, histological structure, and immune functions of the following lymphoid organs: thymus, lymph nodes, spleen, tonsils, aggregated lymphoid nodules in the intestine, and appendix.
Thymus Site where immature lymphocytes develop into T cells, Secretes thymic hormones, Most active in childhood, Composed of cortex and medulla, Differs from other lymphoid organs, Functions strictly in lymphocyte maturation, Atrophies after puberty and may not even be present in an elderly person Lymph Nodes ¥ Function ¥ Lymph percolates through lymph sinuses ¥ the fluid slows down in the lymph nodes so that it can be monitored by the T and B cells ¥ Most antigenic challenges occur in lymph nodes ¥ Antigens are destroyed and activate B & T cells ¥ Activation of T and B cells is key to the immune system destroying microbes ¥ activation is mediated by Helper T cells Spleen ¥ Largest lymphoid organ ¥ Two main blood-cleansing functions ¥ Removal of blood-borne antigens ¥ Removal and destruction of old or defective blood cells ¥ Destruction of antigens ¥ Site of B cell maturation into plasma cells ¥ Phagocytosis of bacteria and worn-out RBCs, WBCs, and platelets ¥ Storage of platelets Tonsils ¥ Simplest lymphoid organs ¥ Four groups of tonsils ¥ Palatine, lingual, pharyngeal, and tubal tonsils ¥ Arranged in a ring to gather and remove pathogens ¥ Underlying lamina propria consists of MALT ¥ Monitor incoming antigens in the nose and mouth Aggregated lymphoid nodules & Appendix ¥ MALT—abundant in walls of intestines ¥ MALT = mucosa associated lymphoid tissue ¥ Fight invading bacteria ¥ Generate a wide variety of memory cells ¥ Aggregated lymphoid nodules (Peyer’s patches) ¥ Located in the distal part of the small intestine ¥ Appendix—tubular offshoot of the cecum
500
Define reflex, and list the basic components of a reflex arc
1. reflexes Rapid, autonomic motor responses • Receptor—site where stimulus acts • Sensory neuron—transmits afferent impulses to the CNS • Integration center—consists of one or more synapses in the CNS • Motor neuron—conducts efferent impulses from integration center to an effector • Effector—muscle or gland cell 2. Responds to efferent impulses 1. Contracting of a muscle/Secretion from glands
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