Neurotransmitters/
Hormones
Hormones
An individual recovering from a sports injury reports very little pain even though they have a broken bone.Which neurotransmitter or hormone is likely elevated?
Endorphins
Dreaming occurs during this stage of sleep.
REM sleep
A baby plays peek-a-boo and laughs when a parent’s face reappears, but earlier didn’t understand that the person still existed when out of sight. Which stage is the child in?
Sensorimotor stage (birth to ~2 years)
A 1-year-old cries when hungry and calms down when fed and held. Over time, they begin to trust their caregivers and feel safe in their environment. Which stage is this, and what is the central conflict?
Trust vs. Mistrust (Erikson’s Stage 1: birth–18 months)
Every time a bell rings, a dog gets food. Eventually, the dog salivates when it hears the bell, even if no food is given. What is the conditioned response?
Salivating to the bell
A patient presents with memory problems and signs of early Alzheimer’s disease. Tests reveal a deterioration of neurons in the hippocampus responsible for encoding new information. Which neurotransmitter is likely in low supply?
Acetylcholine (ACh)
A child wets the bed or sleepwalks during this stage. There is no dreaming, and the brain is mostly inactive with slow delta waves. Which sleep stage is this?
Stage 3 (also known as deep sleep or slow-wave sleep)
A 15-year-old debates whether time travel is possible and imagines what society would be like without laws. They enjoy exploring abstract concepts and hypothetical situations. Which stage is this?
Formal operational stage (12 years and up)
A 5-year-old plays “teacher” with dolls and makes up stories. They begin to plan, take initiative, and engage in make-believe games. If criticized too harshly, they may feel guilty about their actions. Which stage is this?
Initiative vs. Guilt (Erikson’s Stage 3: 3–6 years)
A baby hears a loud noise and cries. Later, the baby sees a white rat at the same time as the noise. Eventually, the baby cries just from seeing the rat. What is the conditioned stimulus?
The white rat
A patient is experiencing symptoms of major depressive disorder, including sadness, fatigue, and appetite disturbance. Which neurotransmitter is likely in short supply?
Serotonin
During this stage, a person’s breathing slows, muscles relax, and they might experience hypnic jerks or hypnagogic sensations.
Stage 1
A 4-year-old tells a story about how the sun goes to sleep at night and wakes up in the morning. When asked why it rains, they say “because the clouds are sad.” Which stage is being described?
Preoperational stage (about 2–7 years) - Animism & Egocentrism
A 45-year-old feels a strong desire to mentor younger coworkers and give back to their community. They worry about being unproductive or disconnected if they can’t contribute meaningfully. Which psychosocial stage is being described?
Generativity vs. Stagnation (Erikson’s Stage 7: Middle adulthood, 40s–60s)
A student gets nervous every time they hear the school bell because it means a timed quiz is coming. What is the unconditioned stimulus?
The timed quiz
After starting a new diet, a woman notices she constantly feels hungry, even after eating large meals. A blood test shows reduced levels of the hormone that usually suppresses hunger. Which hormone is likely too low?
Leptin
During a sleep study, a person shows sleep spindles and K-complexes on their EEG. They are now more fully asleep and harder to wake than before. Which sleep stage is this?
Stage 2
A 6-year-old struggles with the idea that their brother has a brother. They insist that they have a brother, but their brother does not. Which stage is this, and what limitation is being shown?
Preoperational stage – Egocentrism
A 9-year-old compares themselves to classmates and begins to feel confident when praised for their schoolwork. If they struggle and feel behind, they might develop feelings of inferiority. Which psychosocial stage is being demonstrated?
Industry vs. Inferiority (Erikson’s Stage 4: 6–12 years)
A teenager loses their phone after missing curfew. They start coming home on time more often. What type of consequence is this?
Negative punishment
A patient reports chronic pain that doesn't seem to improve with traditional treatments. Tests suggest an overactivity in pain transmission pathways.
Substance P
What does the term “paradoxical sleep” refer to?
REM is called "paradoxical sleep" because the brain is very active (like waking), but the body is essentially paralyzed. This contradiction—active brain, inactive body—is what makes it paradoxical.
A 9-year-old is given two identical balls of clay. One is flattened, and they correctly say both have the same amount of clay, even though they look different. Which Piaget stage is this child demonstrating?
Concrete operational stage (about 7–11 years) - Conservation
A 17-year-old says, “I’m visiting colleges, talking to professionals, and thinking hard about whether I want to go into engineering or medicine. I haven’t decided yet.” Which identity status is being described?
Identity Moratorium (Moratorium is a period of active exploration without a final commitment)
A student receives a quiz every Friday. They tend to study more on Thursday nights. Which schedule of reinforcement is being used?
Fixed interval