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Relate the opening and closing of specific heart valves… to pressure changes in the heart chambers and the great vessels
AV Valves: Open when atrial pressure > ventricular pressure.
Semilunar Valves: Open when ventricular pressure > arterial pressure
Compare and contrast tunic thickness, composition, and lumen diameter among arteries, capillaries, and veins
Arteries: Thick tunica media, small lumen.
Capillaries: Single endothelial layer for exchange.
Veins: Thin walls, large lumen, valves
Describe the mechanisms of lymph formation and circulation.
Formation: Blood pressure filters plasma → forms interstitial fluid → enters lymphatic capillaries → called lymph.
Circulation:
Skeletal muscle contraction.
Breathing movements (pressure changes).
Smooth muscle in large lymphatic vessels.
Valves prevent backflow.
Lymph flows toward the subclavian veins.
Explain ways in which the innate (nonspecific) and adaptive (specific) immune responses cooperate to enhance the overall resistance to disease.
Innate defenses slow infections and activate the adaptive immune system.
Antigen-presenting cells (like macrophages) help activate T cells.
Cytokines produced during innate responses enhance adaptive responses.
Describe the major functions of the respiratory system.
Brings oxygen into the body and removes carbon dioxide.
Filters, moistens, and warms incoming air.
Gas exchange occurs at the microscopic air sacs (alveoli).
Produces vocal sounds.
Supports sense of smell.
Helps regulate blood pH
Relate the heart sounds to the events of the cardiac cycle.
"Lubb": Closure of AV valves (ventricular systole).
"Dupp": Closure of semilunar valves (ventricular diastole)
Explain the steps of the baroreceptor reflex and describe how this reflex maintains blood pressure homeostasis
Steps:
Detect pressure changes (baroreceptors in carotid sinus/aorta).
Relay signals to medulla.
Adjust CO and vessel resistance to maintain BP
Describe the structure, functions, and major locations of the following lymphatic organs: lymph nodes, thymus, and spleen.
Lymph Nodes: Bean-shaped, <2.5 cm long come from the Cervical, axillary, inguinal, etc and they Filter lymph and do immune surveillance
Thymus: Soft, bilobed gland, with lobules that comes from Mediastinum (chest area) and they do T cell maturation via thymosins
Spleen: Largest lymphatic organ, with red and white pulp and comes from the Upper left abdomen they Filter blood; destroys old RBCs, and immune response
Describe the mechanisms that initiate inflammation.
Vasodilation (more blood to the area).
Increased capillary permeability (allows white blood cells and fluids to enter tissues).
Chemotaxis (chemical signals attract immune cells).
Compare and contrast the general locations and functions of the conducting and respiratory portions (zones) of the respiratory tract.
Conducting Portion:
Location: Nose, nasal cavity, sinuses, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchial tree.
Function: Filters, moistens, warms, and transports air but no gas exchange.
Respiratory Portion:
Location: Respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs, alveoli.
Function: Actual site of gas exchange between air and blood
Define cardiac output (CO)… and predict how changes in HR and/or SV will affect CO
CO = Heart Rate (HR) × Stroke Volume (SV).
Increases with higher HR or SV
State the equation relating mean arterial pressure (MAP) to cardiac output (CO) and total peripheral resistance (TPR)
MAP=CO×TPR
Describe the structure, function, and major locations of lymphatic nodules (e.g., mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue [MALT], tonsils).
Structure: Unencapsulated lymphatic tissue made of lymphocytes and macrophages.
Function: Trap and destroy pathogens at mucosal surfaces.
Locations:
MALT: Digestive, respiratory, urinary, and reproductive tracts.
Tonsils and Appendix: Special types of MALT.
Peyer’s Patches: In the ileum (small intestine).
Describe the general structure and functions of the various types of lymphocytes (e.g., helper T cells, cytotoxic T cells, regulatory [suppressor] T cells, B cells, plasma cells, memory cells).
Helper T Cells - Activate other immune cells with cytokines.
Cytotoxic T Cells - Kill virus-infected and cancer cells.
Regulatory T Cells - Suppress immune response after infection clears.
B Cells - Bind to specific antigens; need T cell help to fully activate.
Plasma Cells - Derived from B cells; produce antibodies.
Memory Cells - Remain long-term; quickly respond to future infections
Provide specific examples to demonstrate how the respiratory system responds to maintain homeostasis in the body.
Breathing rate adjusts with CO₂ and pH changes.
Chemoreceptors in the brain and arteries monitor CO₂ levels and adjust ventilation to maintain pH balance.
If CO₂ increases → breathing rate increases to remove it
Define venous return, preload, and afterload… and explain how they affect EDV, ESV, and SV
Venous Return: Blood returning to heart.
Preload: End-diastolic volume (EDV), increased by venous return.
Afterload: Resistance to ejection, affects end-systolic volume (ESV)
Describe the major functions of the lymphatic system.
Transport excess interstitial fluid back to the bloodstream.
Absorb dietary fats in the small intestine (via lacteals) and move them to the blood.
Defend against disease by housing immune cells that provide immunity.
Compare and contrast innate (nonspecific) with adaptive (specific) defenses.
Innate - Nonspecific; general defense against all pathogens (e.g., skin, inflammation, phagocytosis).
Adaptive - Specific; targets a particular antigen using B and T lymphocytes.
List and explain the causes of the four cardinal signs of inflammation.
Redness - Vasodilation brings more blood
Swelling - Increased capillary permeability → fluid leaks into tissue
Heat - Blood from deeper parts of the body is warmer
Pain - Stimulation of nearby pain receptors by chemicals
Describe the processes associated with the respiratory system (i.e., ventilation, pulmonary gas exchange, transport of gases in blood, tissue gas exchange).
Ventilation: Breathing (moving air in and out).
Pulmonary Gas Exchange: Oxygen and carbon dioxide swap between alveoli and blood.
Transport of Gases: Blood carries O₂ and CO₂ between lungs and body cells.
Tissue Gas Exchange: O₂ moves into tissues, CO₂ moves into blood
State the Frank-Starling Law of the heart and explain its significance.
Greater preload leads to stronger contraction and increased SV, balancing output from both heart sides
Compare and contrast whole blood, plasma, interstitial fluid, and lymph.
Whole Blood - Blood cells + plasma.
Plasma - Liquid part of blood without blood cells; contains proteins, nutrients.
Interstitial Fluid - Plasma without large proteins; found between cells
Lymph - Interstitial fluid that has entered lymphatic capillaries
Describe the roles of various types of leukocytes in innate (nonspecific) and adaptive immune responses.
Neutrophils - Most active phagocytes in blood; innate defense
Monocytes → Macrophages - Phagocytosis; act as antigen-presenting cells (APCs).
Natural Killer (NK) Cells - Destroy virus-infected and cancer cells without specificity
B Cells - Produce antibodies (adaptive/humoral immunity)
Helper T Cells - Activate B cells and cytotoxic T cells (adaptive/cellular immunity).
Cytotoxic T Cells - Directly kill infected cells (adaptive)
Regulatory T Cells - Suppress immune responses after pathogen defeat (adaptive).
Describe the mechanism of fever, including the role of pyrogens.
Infection → Lymphocytes secrete interleukin-1 (IL-1) → raises body's temperature set point.
IL-1 = endogenous pyrogen ("fire maker from within").
Fever inhibits pathogen growth and boosts phagocytosis by immune cells.
Define pulmonary ventilation, inspiration (inhalation), and expiration (exhalation).
Pulmonary Ventilation: Movement of air into and out of lungs (breathing).
Inspiration (Inhalation): Breathing air into the lungs.
Expiration (Exhalation): Breathing air out of the lungs