Chemistry chapters
What is special about carbon molecules in respect to binding, how has this affected life?
They can make 4 bonds and make up organic molecules that make life possible. Carbon is a versatile building block for life.
What is the main difference(s) between prokaryotes and Eukaryotes?
Membrane bound organelles and a nucleus with non-circular DNA.
What is the difference between catabolic and anabolic reactions?
catabolic breaks down larger molecules to produce energy, anabolic builds molecules requiring inputs of energy.
What are the genotypic frequencies when two hybrid parents are crossed? (Aa x Aa)
AA: 25 %, aa: 25%, and Aa: 50%
A signal is transferred by what type of transport during paracrine or autocrine signaling?
diffusion of local regulators of released ligands.
What are the four important classes of large biological molecules?
carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic acids, and lipids
What is the role of the Golgi apparatus?
A packaging/processing point in the cell that manages and packs vacuoles for distribution.
Define fermentation and a situation where it would occur.
A partial degradation of sugars that occurs without oxygen. For obligate anaerobes in every day life and for facultative in the stress of low oxygen environments.
What is distinct about x-linked traits and the way that they appear on pedigrees.
Male offspring are more likely to exhibit since they only have 1 X chromosome. Females can be carriers and not exhibit the traits.
Give an example of how long distance cell signaling occurs.
An endocrine gland releases hormones into the blood stream, this distributes the hormone throughout the body so that it can reach far away target cells.
What is the normal amount of protons, neutrons, and electrons in a typical neutral carbon atom?
6,6, and 6. Because the atomic number is 6 and mass number is 12.
What effect does the plasma membrane have on hormones?
Lipid soluble hormones can cross and bind to receptors inside the cell. Water-soluble hormones must bind to receptors on the outside of the membrane.
Analyze the respiration chemical equation in terms of a redox reaction. What is a redox reaction and which reactants are which?
In a redox reaction, electrons are lost from a substance via oxidation. And addition of electrons to a substance: reduction. For cell respiration glucose is oxidized to carbon dioxide and oxygen is reduced to water.
Describe the role of helicase, topoisomerase, and ligase.
helicase unwinds the parental double helix at the replication fork.
topoisomerase relieves the strand on the DNA ahead of the fork by breaking swiveling and rejoining DNA.
ligase connects lagging strand on the lagging strand. Also connects 3' end to where the primer ends on the leading strand.
briefly outline or illustrate the parts of the neuron and how they interact during the formation of an action potential.
Dendrite, Neuron (cell body), axon hillock, axon, synapse, target cell or neuron
The dendrites can collect sensory signals, neuron is where the action potential begins due to depolarization. It moves down the axon via ion movement of sodium and potassium channels.
If the pH of a substance is 10, describe its acidity/basicity. What is the pOH?
The pOH would be 4 so the substance is pretty basic.
Give an example of a protein involved in active transport and one for passive transport, how do these differ?
Channel proteins are passive, carrier proteins can require energy to function and thus are sometimes a part of active transport. Also active includes bulk transport.
Why is the ATP gained from glycolysis referred to as net 2? What is the energy investment phase.
Energy is needed to break the glucose bond, so 2 ATP must be invested and glycolysis creates 4 new. This leads to a net gain of only 2 ATP.
How is protein created from DNA? What occurs during transcription?
DNA to RNA to protein
Transcription converts the information in DNA into mRNA codons that code for Amino acids assembled in translation at the ribosome.
How do stress responses occur in the endocrine system? short/long term stressors?
This occurs in the adrenal gland. the Adrenal medulla releases epinephrine and norepinephrine for fight or flight response. The adrenal cortex releases corticoids to regulate mineral and food for the body.
List and describe the four major properties of water.
cohesive behavior: molecules bind to each other and create surface tension phenomenon.
ability to moderate temperature: very high specific heat and heat capacity. (Oceans=heat sink)
expansion upon freezing: the crystal structure of ice is less dense and floats in water
versatile solvent: many substances are soluble in water
Describe the role of cholesterol in the cell membrane. How does it interact with a largely saturated membrane?
cholesterol keeps the membrane from becoming too loose at high temps and becoming too rigid at low temps. It can prevent packing of saturated fatty acid tails at low temps and hold them together at higher temps.
List the major steps of respiration and ATP produced at each step.
Glycolysis: net 2 ATP
Pyruvate Oxidation
Citric Acid Cycle: 2 ATP
Oxidative phosphorylation: 26-28 ATP
What is the difference between pleiotropy, epistasis, and polygenic inheritance?
Pleiotropy: One gene leading to many phenotypic effects
Epistasis: expression of a gene is controlled by another gene at a second locus.
polygenic inheritance: multiple genes leading to a certain phenotype
Explain the significance of the myelin sheaths and how they are produced in the CNS and PNS.
They insulate the axon, speeding up the movement of the action potential. Between the sheaths are nodes of Ranvier where saltatory conduction occurs to continue the action potential. CNS: oligodendrocytes, PNS: Schwann cells.