Enlightened Ideas
Which Enlightenment philosopher argued that governments derive "their just powers from the consent of the governed," a concept central to popular sovereignty?
John Locke
How many branches of the federal government are established by the Constitution, and what are they
Three branches: legislative, executive, judicial.
What is the main purpose of separating powers among branches of government?
To prevent concentration of power and protect liberty.
Define "rule of law" in one sentence.
No one is above the law; laws apply equally to all persons and government officials.
What is the role of the States in amending the Constitution?
Propose amendments through State Conventions, three-fourths of States ratify amendments
Name the Enlightenment idea that holds people have basic rights such as life, liberty, and property which governments must respect
Natural Rights
What is federalism?
Federalism is a system that divides power between national and state governments.
Name one check the legislative branch has on the executive branch.
Examples: Congress can override a presidential veto; Senate confirms appointments and ratifies treaties; Congress controls appropriations.
List two sources of law in the United States legal system.
Common law and statutory law (also constitutional law and administrative law).
What does the Tenth Amendment state about powers not delegated to the federal government?
The Tenth Amendment reserves to the states or the people powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution.
Which English philosopher wrote about the social contract and the need for separation of powers to protect liberty, influencing the framers?
Montesquieu (also accepted: John Locke for social contract; answer should mention separation of powers for Montesquieu).
Give one example of a power explicitly granted to Congress in the Constitution.
Example: the power to tax and spend, regulate commerce (Commerce Clause), declare war.
Describe how the judicial branch can check both the legislative and executive branches.
Judicial review allows courts to declare laws or executive actions unconstitutional; courts interpret laws and can limit actions by striking them down.
What is judicial review, and which Supreme Court case established it?
Judicial review: established by Marbury v. Madison (1803).
Give one historical example where the balance of power shifted toward the federal government and explain why.
Civil War, Reconstruction, Progressive Era reforms, New Deal, World War/Cold War war powers, Patriot Act...
Explain how the concept of representative government differs from direct democracy. Give one example of each in the U.S. context
Representative government: citizens elect representatives to make decisions (example: U.S. Congress). Direct democracy: citizens vote directly on laws (example: ballot referendums in some states).
Explain the difference between enumerated, implied, and concurrent powers; give one example of each
Enumerated: powers explicitly listed in the Constitution (e.g., coin money). Implied: powers not listed but necessary and proper to carry out enumerated powers (e.g., establishing a bank, justified by the Necessary and Proper Clause). Concurrent: powers shared by federal and state governments (e.g., taxation).
Describe one limit to the judicial branch's power to check the executive or legislative branch.
The judicial branch does not have the power to enforce rulings.The executive and legislative branches have the power to expand the Supreme Court
Explain how common law differs from statutory law and give an example of each.
Common law is law developed by judges through decisions (e.g., doctrines like precedent); statutory law is written law passed by legislatures (e.g., the Civil Rights Act).
Outline the formal steps required to amend the Constitution.
Proposal by two‑thirds of both Houses of Congress (or by a convention called by two‑thirds of state legislatures), then ratification by three‑fourths of state legislatures or state conventions.
Describe two ways Enlightenment ideas influenced specific provisions in the United States Constitution or the Bill of Rights. Cite the provision and the idea.
The First Amendment (freedom of speech/religion) reflects natural rights; Article I’s design of a representative legislature reflects popular sovereignty; the separation of powers in Articles I–III reflects Montesquieu’s influence.
Describe one similarity or difference between the states' constitutions and the federal Constitution
Sample: Both have preambles, bills of rights, separation of powers; differences include term lengths, methods of electing officials, or presence of a state-level initiative process.
Analyze a modern example (post‑1950) of a constitutional conflict between the branches or between the State and Federal government
Sample: The War Powers Act (Congress limiting presidential military action) or conflicts over executive orders and court injunctions (e.g., immigration executive actions challenged in courts).
Describe how administrative regulations are created and one way citizens can challenge them.
Administrative regulations are created by executive agencies under authority granted by statutes; citizens can challenge them in court (judicial review) or through administrative comment and rulemaking procedures.
Give an argument for or against increasing federal power in an area traditionally governed by states (e.g., education, healthcare). Provide a piece of evidence supporting each side.
Sample pro: national standards can ensure equal rights and resources, citing federal civil rights legislation and Supreme Court rulings. Sample con: states can tailor policy to local needs and serve as “laboratories of democracy,” citing Tenth Amendment and examples of state innovations.