Epidemiology and indicators
Define Prevalence and Incidence and explain how they differ regarding the time frame used for measurement.
Incidence is the number of new cases that develop within a given time period. Prevalence is the proportion of individuals in a population that have a disease at a particular time (point prevalence).
According to the Lalonde (1974) model, which determinant of health has the lowest percentage of influence (11%), and which accounts for the highest percentage (43%)?
The determinant with the lowest influence (11%) is the Healthcare system. The determinant accounting for the highest percentage (43%) is Lifestyles.
Which specific period in the natural history of disease (Leavell and Clark, 1965) is characterized by the first appearance of non-specific symptoms and signs?
The Prodromal period is the stage characterized by the first appearance of inespecific symptoms and signs
According to the World Health Organization (WHO) definition from 1946, health is defined as a state of complete well-being across what three dimensions, beyond the absence of disease?
According to the WHO (1946), health is a state of complete well-being across physical, mental, and social dimensions
Differentiate between a Rate (tasa) and a Ratio (razón), providing an example of each as described in the sources.
A Rate (tasa) is a quantity measured per unit of something else, usually time (e.g., Mortality rate or Lung cancer mortality rate). A Ratio (razón) is a relationship of a group versus another group (group/group) (e.g., No. Men per women in a population).
Based on the Black Report (1980), what factors are considered more important than healthcare systems in determining health? Name two examples of these factors.
The Black Report (1980) emphasized that Social and economic inequalities are more important than healthcare systems. Two examples of these factors are work and income (or neighborhood, education, gender, ethnic group).
What is the main characteristic of the Subclinic pathogenic period, and what condition must have already occurred regarding risk factors?
The main characteristic is that the disease shows no signs or symptoms. However, exposure to the risk factor must have already occurred
How did Milton Terris (1980) modify the WHO concept of health, specifically by adding a key component related to functioning?
Milton Terris (1980) modified the definition by including "the capacity to function" as a key component of the state of well-being
An epidemiological indicator needs certain qualities to allow for objective public health decisions. List three essential characteristics these indicators should possess.
Three essential characteristics an epidemiological indicator should possess are: Easy to get, Simple to make, and Reproducible (or Effective).
Tulchinsky and Varavikova (2014) described "The New Public Health" as an integrative approach. Name two dimensions (e.g., factors or aspects) recognized by this approach, emphasizing its comprehensive nature.
Tulchinsky and Varavikova (2014) described "The New Public Health" as an integrative approach. Two dimensions recognized by this approach are conceptual factors and political factors (or methodological, scientific, or moral factors).
Describe the primary focus of Primary Prevention, noting when these actions must take place in the disease timeline and listing two general types of actions involved.
Primary Prevention actions take place during the prepathogenic period only. Its primary focus is Health protection and promotion
Summarize the observation made by Piédrola Gil regarding the difficulty in defining the concept of "health."
Piédrola Gil observed that health is something that everyone knows what it is until the moment they lose it, or when they try to define it
Explain why a risk factor is not necessarily considered a causal factor. Additionally, list the three temporal classifications that a risk factor can possess.
A risk factor is a variable showing a statistical relationship with the event, but it is not necessarily a causal factor; much evidence is needed to establish causality. The three temporal classifications are: Instantaneous, Temporary, and Continuous.
Provide specific examples of how socioeconomic inequalities affect two different health determinants: Biology and Environment.
Regarding Biology, chronic stress in poor situations during childhood can lead to lower intellectual capacity, sleeping problems, or inflammatory mediators. Regarding the Environment, high-poverty neighborhoods often have more pollution, allergens, and greater alcohol and tobacco availability.
Explain the objectives and timing of Tertiary Prevention, specifically naming two types of rehabilitation actions associated with this level.
Tertiary Prevention occurs during the decline period. Its objectives are minimizing the consequences of the disease and preventing recurrences. Associated rehabilitation actions are Social and physical rehab
Based on the definition provided in the sources, what is a disease, and how does this definition relate to normal functioning?
A disease is defined as a condition of the living body or one of its parts that impairs normal functioning and is typically manifested by distinguishing signs and symptoms
Define the epidemiological indicator concepts of Sensitivity and Specificity. Explain what outcome (true positives vs. false positives) each measure aims to capture or avoid.
Sensitivity aims to capture all true positives. Specificity aims to achieve no false positives.
Describe the actions and professional groups involved in the Public Health action area known as Health protection related to the environment, and contrast this with the goal of Health restoration.
Health protection related to the environment involves professional groups such as vets, pharmacists, bromatologists, and engineers. This contrasts with Health restoration, which is achieved through primary/secondary care.
or a disease to be suitable for effective Screening, four conditions must be met: 1) Severe disease consequences; 2) Treatment of the disease improves prognosis; 3) High percentage of patients; and 4) Simple, efficient and cost-effective diagnosis List the four main conditions that must be met for a disease to be suitable for effective Screening.
For a disease to be suitable for effective Screening, four conditions must be met: 1) Severe disease consequences; 2) Treatment of the disease improves prognosis; 3) High percentage of patients; and 4) Simple, efficient and cost-effective diagnosis
In the context of illness manifestation, explain the fundamental difference between a sign and a symptom.
sign (objective manifestation) vs symptom (subjective manifestation)