Structuralism & Functionalism
Wilhelm Wundt is considered the father of Psychology. His broad view of disciplinary psychology consisted of two branches. Name and describe both branches in terms of what their respective subject matter and methods were to be.
Wundt’s experimental branch focused on basic mental processes such as sensation and perception. It used experimental introspection under controlled laboratory conditions to study conscious experience. His second branch, Völkerpsychologie, focused on higher mental processes such as language, culture, and social behavior. This branch used methods like historical analysis and cultural comparison. Together, these approaches aimed to provide a complete understanding of the mind.
The Behaviorists created a new approach to psychology with the express purpose of redefining the discipline. What was their new definition of Psychology? What did they propose the subject matter of a scientific Psychology should be and why? How did this differ from the subject matter of earlier schools?
Behaviorists defined psychology as the scientific study of observable behavior. They argued that psychology should focus only on what can be measured and objectively verified. Their goal was to predict and control behavior using empirical methods. This differed from earlier schools, which focused on consciousness and relied on introspection. Behaviorists rejected these approaches as unscientific and subjective.
What significance did Weber's work have for the development of experimental psychology? In your answer, describe Weber's research techniques and findings.
Weber’s work was significant because it introduced the first quantitative law in psychology, known as Weber’s Law. He used controlled experiments to study sensory perception, such as comparing weights and measuring touch sensitivity. His research focused on the just noticeable difference, or the smallest detectable change in a stimulus. He found that this difference is proportional rather than absolute. This demonstrated that psychological processes could be measured scientifically.
According to Alfred Adler, what is an inferiority complex? Where do feelings of inferiority come from and how do we overcome them?
An inferiority complex is a persistent feeling of inadequacy that originates in childhood. Adler believed these feelings arise because humans begin life dependent and physically weak. If these feelings are not properly resolved, they can become overwhelming and maladaptive. They may also be intensified by overprotective or neglectful parenting. Individuals overcome inferiority by striving for superiority, meaning personal growth, competence, and self-improvement.
According to Abraham Maslow, what is self-actualization? What kind of experiences do people who are self-actualized tend to have more of? Give an example of this kind of experience.
Self-actualization is the process of realizing one’s full potential and becoming the best version of oneself. Maslow believed it is an innate drive toward growth and fulfillment. Self-actualized individuals frequently experience peak experiences, which are moments of intense joy, clarity, and meaning. These experiences often involve a sense of unity and transcendence. For example, someone might feel a profound sense of awe while creating art or experiencing nature.
Name and describe the five characteristics of consciousness according to William James.
William James described consciousness as personal, meaning it belongs to an individual. It is constantly changing, as thoughts are always shifting. It is continuous, forming a stream rather than separate parts. Consciousness is also functional, helping individuals adapt to their environment. Finally, it is selective, meaning it focuses on some stimuli while ignoring others.
Describe how cognitive maps develop, according to Edward Tolman. Give an example to illustrate this development.
Tolman proposed that cognitive maps are mental representations of the environment that organisms use to navigate. These maps develop through experience as individuals learn the relationships between different locations. Learning is not just about stimulus-response connections but involves understanding spatial layouts.
For example, a rat in a maze learns the overall structure and can take new routes to reach a goal. This shows that learning involves internal representations, not just observable behavior.
Name and describe three Gestalt principles of perception. Feel free to include a diagram to illustrate these principles.
The principle of proximity states that objects close together are perceived as a group. The principle of similarity states that objects that look alike are grouped together. The principle of closure refers to the tendency to perceive incomplete figures as complete. These principles show that perception is organized and structured rather than random. They reflect the Gestalt idea that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts.
According to Carl Jung, what are archetypes? Give two examples of archetypes that Jung described.
Archetypes are universal, inherited patterns of thought and behavior found in the collective unconscious. They shape how individuals perceive the world and respond emotionally to experiences. One example is the persona, which is the social mask people present to others. Another example is the shadow, which represents the unconscious, often undesirable aspects of the self. These archetypes influence personality and behavior across cultures.
Distinguish between normal and neurotic anxiety, according to Rollo May. What does he say neurotic anxiety leads to?
Normal anxiety is a natural and appropriate response to real threats or challenges. It can motivate growth and adaptation.
Neurotic anxiety, in contrast, is excessive and disproportionate, often leading individuals to avoid freedom and responsibility.
May argued that neurotic anxiety results in self-alienation. This occurs when individuals live according to external expectations rather than their authentic values.
Compare and contrast Wilhelm Wundt's view of psychology with Edward Titchener's.
Wundt believed that the mind actively organizes experience, a view known as voluntarism. Titchener, in contrast, viewed the mind as passive and focused on breaking it into basic elements, a perspective called structuralism. Both used introspection as a method to study consciousness. However, Wundt included cultural and social processes in psychology, while Titchener rejected these and focused only on laboratory research. This made Titchener’s approach more narrow than Wundt’s.
Explain why Edward Thorndike is viewed as a transitional figure between the schools of functionalism and behaviorism.
Thorndike is considered a transitional figure because his work connected functionalist ideas about adaptation with behaviorist emphasis on observable behavior. He studied animal learning using puzzle boxes and found that learning occurred gradually through trial and error. His Law of Effect stated that behaviors followed by satisfying outcomes are more likely to be repeated. This shifted focus away from mental processes toward observable stimulus-response relationships. His work helped lay the foundation for behaviorism.
Briefly describe Christine Ladd-Franklin's evolutionary theory of colour vision. How does the relative prevalence of red-green colour blindness over blue-yellow colour blindness provide support for her theory?
Ladd-Franklin proposed that color vision evolved in stages over time. The earliest stage was achromatic vision, followed by blue-yellow vision, and finally red-green vision. Because red-green vision developed most recently, it is more vulnerable to genetic disruption. This explains why red-green color blindness is more common than blue-yellow color blindness. The pattern of color blindness supports the idea that visual systems evolved gradually.
Explain Sigmund Freud's seduction hypothesis and how it was received by the medical community of the time. How did Freud eventually change this hypothesis in response?
Freud’s seduction hypothesis proposed that hysteria was caused by repressed memories of actual childhood sexual abuse. This idea was poorly received by the medical community, who found it controversial and implausible. Due to this backlash, Freud revised his theory. He later suggested that these memories were not real events but unconscious fantasies. Despite this change, he maintained that repression and unconscious conflict were central to psychological disorders.
What is the Human Dilemma, according to Rollo May?
The human dilemma refers to the tension between being both subject and object. Humans are objects in that they are influenced by biological and environmental forces. At the same time, they are subjects who assign meaning and make choices. This dual nature creates psychological tension. It also makes human experience unique compared to other species.
What was John Dewey's criticism of the analysis of behaviour in terms of reflexes? Explain what he meant by the Reflex Arc and give an example.
Dewey criticized the idea that behavior could be understood as a simple chain of stimulus and response. He argued that stimulus and response are part of a continuous, integrated process called the reflex arc. In this view, each response influences the next stimulus in an ongoing cycle. For example, a child seeing a candle, reaching for it, feeling heat, and withdrawing their hand is one continuous action. This approach emphasizes function rather than isolated events.
Compare and contrast John B. Watson's classical conditioning and B.F. Skinner's operant conditioning (be sure to discuss both similarities and differences).
Classical conditioning involves learning through association between stimuli, where a neutral stimulus comes to elicit a response.
Operant conditioning involves learning through the consequences of behavior, such as reinforcement or punishment.
In classical conditioning, the organism is relatively passive, while in operant conditioning, behavior is more active and voluntary. Both forms of learning involve associations and can be studied experimentally. However, they differ in whether behavior is elicited by stimuli or emitted by the organism.
Distinguish between subjective and objective reality in Koffka's description of the geographical and behavioural environments. Using an example, explain which is more important in determining behaviour, according to Koffka.
Koffka distinguished between the geographical environment, which is the objective physical world, and the behavioral environment, which is how that world is perceived. The behavioral environment reflects subjective experience and interpretation. According to Koffka, behavior is determined more by the behavioral environment than the geographical one. For example, a person may avoid a harmless object if they perceive it as dangerous. This shows that perception, not objective reality, guides behavior.
A key aspect of Karen Horney's psychodynamic theory was the role of Basic Anxiety. What is basic anxiety, where does it come from and how does it influence personality?
Basic anxiety is a deep feeling of loneliness and helplessness in a hostile world. Horney believed it develops from disturbed relationships between children and their parents. When caregivers are inconsistent, neglectful, or overly controlling, children feel insecure. To cope, individuals develop strategies such as moving toward, against, or away from others. These coping styles shape personality and interpersonal behavior.
According to William James, what was the role of free will in determining behaviour? Discuss his ideo-motor theory of behaviour in your response.
James believed that free will plays a role through the effort of attention, allowing individuals to choose which ideas to act on. According to his ideomotor theory, simply thinking about an action can trigger that action.
However, competing thoughts can inhibit or override this tendency. Free will operates by directing attention toward certain ideas over others. This allows behavior to be influenced rather than fully determined.
Compare and contrast Structuralism and Functionalism (be sure to discuss both similarities and differences). Name one person who was a Structuralist and one who was a Functionalist.
Structuralism focused on analyzing the structure of the mind by breaking conscious experience into basic elements. Functionalism, in contrast, focused on the purpose of mental processes and how they help individuals adapt to their environment.
Both approaches studied consciousness and often used introspection as a method.
However, structuralism emphasized analysis, while functionalism emphasized application and adaptation.
Edward Titchener was a structuralist, while William James was a functionalist.
What evidence did Tolman provide for his contention that reinforcement influences performance but not learning?
Tolman demonstrated this idea through experiments on latent learning with rats in mazes.
Some rats were allowed to explore the maze without any reward, while others received food reinforcement. When a reward was later introduced, the previously unrewarded rats quickly performed as well as the rewarded ones. This showed that learning had already occurred without reinforcement. Therefore, reinforcement affects the performance of behavior, not the learning itself.
Briefly describe the method and results of Wolfgang Köhler's "Learning as the Transposition of Relationships" experiments with chickens. How did these results contradict Behaviorist views on learning?
Köhler trained chickens to peck at a lighter gray square rather than a darker one. When later presented with a new pair of squares, including one lighter than the original, the chickens chose the lighter option. This showed that they learned a relationship, not just a specific stimulus-response pairing. Behaviorists would predict that the chickens would continue to choose the original stimulus. The results demonstrated that learning involves understanding relationships, not just forming associations.
In addition to elaborating many of her father's defence mechanisms, Anna Freud went on to develop two of her own. Name, describe and give an example of each of these two defence mechanisms.
Anna Freud described altruistic surrender as a defense mechanism in which a person avoids their own anxiety by living through others. For example, a parent may push their child to achieve goals they could not achieve themselves.
She also described identification with the aggressor, where a person adopts the traits of someone who threatens them. This reduces fear by creating a sense of control. An example is a bullied child who begins to bully others.
Humanistic psychology is unique amongst the many perspectives on human psychology proposed throughout the years. Specifically, Humanistic psychologists make two philosophical assumptions that set them apart from all other perspectives: subjectivism and free will. Explain two aspects of Carl Rogers' theory and/or practice that are based on these assumptions about human ontology.
Carl Rogers’ theory emphasized the importance of subjective experience, particularly the individual’s self-concept and personal perspective. He believed that therapy should focus on the client’s internal experience rather than objective diagnosis. His concept of unconditional positive regard reflects free will by creating an environment where individuals can grow and make their own choices. Rogers also emphasized client-centered therapy, where the therapist provides empathy and support rather than direction. These ideas reflect both subjectivism and the belief in personal agency.