America before Columbus
When, why, and how did (the majority of) the earliest humans arrive in the Americas?
While there is some evidence to suggest that small numbers of early humans arrived by boat across the Pacific, the vast majority of early Americans likely walked across the Beringia land bridge connecting modern-day Siberia to Alaska, during the last ice age ending approximately 11,000 years ago. They were primarily motivated by the hunt for large migratory mammals (mammoth and others).
Which individual is often credited with first invigorating European interest in overseas expansion, first along the west coast of Africa intending to establish a Christian empire in Africa and find new gold supplies?
Portugal's Prince Henry the Navigator
Describe the impact of the "enclosure movement" on England's population in the 16th century, and interest in overseas expansion.
As global demand for wool increased, many European landowners converted land from crops to pastures to raise more sheep. This resulted in the eviction of many tenant farmers, who turned into roving bands of beggars without employment. Additionally, the shift limited the food supply at the same time that England's population increased from 3m to 4m between 1485 and 1605, resulting in a "surplus population" which could be resolved in part through acquiring new land through overseas expansion.
What type of colony was Virginia, originally? What type did it become, and why?
The colony was originally established as a charter colony by the London Company, but after years of financial problems and struggles with Native Americans, the charter was revoked and Virginia was governed as a royal colony until 1776.
How did the Mayflower's pilgrims differ in their religious outlook from most English Puritans?
The pilgrims were Puritan separatists, who believed the Anglican Church could not be "purified" of corrupting (mostly Catholic) influence, and the only way to preserve their religious beliefs was to establish a separate religion and society. Most English Puritans (including many civil war "roundheads") advocated for internal reform within Anglicanism.
What key technological and developmental "revolution" took place in modern-day Mexico somewhere between 5,000-10,000 years ago, resulting in the first settled societies in the Americas?
Agriculture, primarily based on corn and also beans and squash, which provided a reliable and sedentary source of calories and led to the development of permanent settlements.
Describe the backgrounds and milestone accomplishments of Vasco da Gama and Ferdinand Magellan.
Vasco da Gama (Portugal) -- Reached India via the Cape of Good Hope (1487-88)
Ferdinand Magellan (OBO Spain) -- (Posthumous) circumnavigation via southern tip of South America, Philippines (1519-1522)
In simple terms, describe the doctrine of Calvinism, which would form the basis of the Puritan faith of early New England settlers.
Calvinists believed in predestination, or the doctrine that God had elected certain people to be saved and others to be damned, and that individuals could know, but not alter, their fates. Calvinists believed that living righteous lives would reveal one's fate, with a useless existence being a sign of damnation, while a saintly, diligent life could be a sign of grace. This doctrine tended to encourage virtue and productivity in Calvinist believers.
How did the dominant cash crop in Virginia impact territorial expansion and relations with Native Americans?
Focus on tobacco as a cash crop required consistent territorial expansion, as tobacco exhausted the soil after only a few years of planting. This drove British settlers to expand the borders of the colony, inevitably leading to tension with displaced Native Americans
Describe the nature of early English engagement with Native Americans in New England.
Native American tribes in New England were weaker and less organized than in Virginia, in large part due to the impact of European diseases. Early on, the English and Native Americans coexisted -- highlighted by the first "Thanksgiving" in 1621 and transfer of native farming techniques -- as Native Americans were not strong enough to organize strong resistance.
Gradually, the settlers' demand for new land inevitably led to increasing tension and violence with natives. The major flashpoints include the 1637 Pequot War in the Connecticut Valley, which featured English alliances with certain tribes against their rivals, and the 1675 King Philip's War. Gradually, English settlers overwhelmed native tribes with greater numbers, resources, and military technology.
Describe three major civilizations in central and South America prior to European contact.
Olmec (1200-400 BC, Mexico)
Maya (250-900 AD, Yucatan peninsula)
Aztec/Mexica (1200-1500 AD, Mexico)
Inca (1400-1550 AD, western South America)
Describe Hernando Cortes' expedition to the Americas.
Describe the nature of Dutch imperialism in America in the 17th century.
Dutch imperialism in America was characterized by settling an ethnically diverse group of colonists from all over Europe in whole families, and granting large feudal estates to landlords called "patroons" who were responsible for recruiting new settlers. The Dutch explored the Hudson River valley and first claimed modern-day Manhattan and the surrounding area as New Amsterdam in the 1620s, until they were ejected by the British in the 1660s.
Describe the nature of the Virginia colony's interaction with the Powhatan Indians.
As the Virginia colony expanded beyond its original charter borders, the Powhatan Indians were displaced and resisted the British expansion. Consistent armed conflict between the two sides persisted throughout the early history of the Virginia colony, famously including kidnap of Pocahontas. In March 1622, Powhatan warriors led a large attack and killed over 300 British. The Powhatans continued to resist English expansion until the 1640s, and their resistance contributed to failure of the original Virginia charter.
What impact did the English Civil War have on British colonization of the Americas?
The English Civil War and related tension in England contributed to a long pause on new colonial expansion between the 1630s and 1660s.
Following the restoration of the monarchy, Charles II rewarded royalist allies with new proprietary land grants for Carolina, New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania.
Native Americans in which portions of the modern-day United States were most reliant on agriculture for primary subsistence?
The Eastern Woodland area of North America was most conducive to early agriculture, while most Native Americans in the Great Plains and west coast relied primarily on hunting.
What were the Ordinances of Discovery, and how did they impact future generations of Spanish America?
Issued by Spain in the 1570s, the Ordinances of Discovery sought to moderate the brutality of the conquistadors, ban military conquest, and expand Spain's presence in the Americas through (theoretically) peaceful colonization. In addition to gaining great wealth from gold and silver mines, Spanish settlers were motivated to establish profitable agricultural economies primarily based on sugar, and to establish Catholic missions to convert new Catholics among the native population.
At its peak, Spain controlled the north, west, and southern portions of South America, all of Central America and the Caribbean, and territory in North America including modern-day Florida, Texas, California, New Mexico, Arizona, and Utah
Describe the events leading to the key turning point in relations between Spain and England during the 16th century.
Throughout most of the 16th century, Spain was in a dominant position in the Americas, expanding territory and extracting a huge amount of wealth from its gold mines and sugar plantations. The English were interested in exploring the Americas but wary of Spanish power, particularly the Spanish navy.
In 1588, Philip II attempted to invade England and force England to return to Catholicism, sending a large armada to the English Channel. With the benefit of a bad storm, the English defeated the armada, shifted the balance of naval power permanently, and began to reconsider the value of colonizing the Americas.
What was the colonial type and core basis for establishing the Maryland colony?
Maryland was established as a proprietary colony under Lord Baltimore, granting his authority to hold the province as "true and absolute lords and proprietaries." Maryland was envisioned as a safe haven for English Catholics facing Anglican oppression in England, and although the majority of settlers were Protestant, Maryland adopted policies assuring religious freedom to all Christians.
What was notable about the demographic composition of the Pennsylvania colony?
Pennsylvania was founded as a proprietary colony for Quakers, who were notable for a relatively anarchistic and democratic religious structure. Quaker ideas were incorporated into the founding of Pennsylvania, which emphasized religious freedom and ethnic diversity. William Penn actively sought out settlers from all over Europe by advertising in multiple languages, and Pennsylvania became the most widely known colony across the European continent, with many Swedes, Finns, Germans, Dutch, and Scots-Irish joining the English majority. Religiously, the colony attracted minority religions including primarily Quakers, but also Anabaptists, Jews, and Amish.
Describe two works of early Native American architecture.
-- Aztec Tenochtitlan had vast aqueduct network
-- Southwestern North American tribes built largescale irrigation systems and adobe terraced "pueblos"
-- Cahokia earth mounds housing at least 10,000 people
-- Mayan pyramid temples
Describe the state of human civilization in West Africa prior to European contact in the 15th century.
West Africa had developed complex economic and political systems by the 15th century, and was part of trade routes (focused on ivory, gold, and slaves, in exchange for finished goods) with the Mediterranean world which spanned the Sahara. Along with goods, Islam was "imported" via these trade routes and had significant influence in West Africa.
The large empire of Ghana disintegrated around 1100, and the empire of Mali, centered at Timbuktu, began to wave in the 1400s.
Following the establishment of Portuguese sugar plantations at Principe and Sao Tome, the established West African slave trade began to sell slaves to support the sugar industry. Replication of sugar plantations in the Caribbean and Brazil would soon drive demand for most African slaves in the Americas.
Describe England's first attempts to establish a colony in North America.
Sir Walter Raleigh led several expeditions to settle the Roanoke colony during the 1580s, establishing what he hoped would be a permanent plantation with over 100 members in 1587, but the colonists mysteriously disappeared without a trace between 1587 and 1590.
What incident in the 1670s revealed for the first time in early American history the potential for violent class divisions and instability in large populations of free, landless young men with few economic and family prospects?
Bacon's Rebellion
Name two early attempts to establish representative government in the American colonies.