Enlightenment
Describe one key individual of the Enlightenment, as their primary area(s) of achievement.
Describe the three estates in France's Old Regime, and their economic and political status prior to the revolution.
First estate - Catholic clergy consisting of less than 1% of the population, owning 10% of the land, paying almost nothing in taxes, and resistant towards Enlightenment ideas.
Second estate - Wealthy nobility consisting of about 2% of the population, owning 20% of the land, paying almost nothing in taxes, and holding mixed opinions towards Enlightenment ideas.
Third estate - "The rest". Included the middle class (bourgeoisie) with bankers, merchants, and skilled artisans, with good educations and strong believe in the Enlightenment ideas; the working class, who were economically desperate; and the peasants, who represented 80% of the overall population. The third estate was heavily taxed at approximately half of their incomes, but held almost no political influence.
Describe Napoleon's early life.
Napoleon was born into a minor noble family in Corsica, with strong Italian cultural influence, shortly after France captured Corsica. He was sent as a young boy to military academies in France, and despite having some resentment towards France's treatment of Corsica, joined the French army and participated in the revolution.
What term refers to a sudden seizure of political power, typically by a military force, such as that which first brought Napoleon to power?
Coup d'etat
What conditions led to the French Revolution?
The class structure of the Old Regime, which represented dramatic income and status inequality and exploited the lower classes to support the lifestyles of the privileged estates, was extremely unbalanced. Enlightenment ideas of representative government, individual and natural rights, and the principle that an illegitimate government should be replaced, as well as the example of the American Revolution's successful political reforms, all contributed to an intellectual and political environment that made the French Revolution possible.
The primary Enlightenment breakthrough in astronomy involved the transition from a X theory of the structure of the universe to a Y theory of the structure of the universe.
X: geocentric (earth-centered)
Y: heliocentric (sun-centered)
Why did France find itself fighting Austria and Prussia in 1792?
European rivals observing the French revolution feared that the republican ideals of the revolution would become "contagious" within Europe and threaten their own monarchies.
This 18th-century Russian ruler was a great admirer of the philosophes and deeply educated, but was able to achieve little to improve the lives of Russian serfs and eventually turned against the idea of ending serfdom, in order to ensure support of the Russian nobility.
Catherine the Great
Which term refers to a logical procedure for gathering data and testing ideas, using hypothesis, observation, analysis, and interpretation?
Scientific method
Describe one way in which the Enlightenment represented continuity with the Renaissance, and one way in which it differed?
The two periods share many "-isms" in common, including humanism, secularism, individualism, and skepticism. Both represent an emphasis on challenging status quo authorities, particularly religious and political authorities.
The Renaissance is generally characterized by achievements in art and literature, and increasing literacy across Europe. The Enlightenment is characterized by a greater emphasis on scientific inquiry, political philosophy and political reform, reason, empiricism and observation, and the emergence of deism.
Describe two key shifts in the arts during the Enlightenment.
Neoclassical art emerged, replacing the dominance of the baroque style, imitating themes from classical Greece and Rome following new archaeological discoveries from these civilizations.
Classical music emerged, characterized by a lighter style used by Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, and others.
Literature expanded in style to include novels, often written in simple language and intended for middle-class audiences.
Describe two elements of Napoleon's domestic policy to restore order in France.
-- Established efficient tax collection system
-- Established national banking system
-- Cracked down of corrupt officials
-- Established government-run schools to train competent officials
-- Restored some degree of Church prestige and influence
-- Established the Napoleonic Code, a unified legal system
This individual defined the law of gravity and revolutionized mankind's understanding of astronomy and physics. He also invented/discovered calculus, all before turning thirty years old.
Isaac Newton
What was a salon? What era and place were these most typical?
A salon was a social gathering of philosophers, writers, artists, scientists, and other intellects to discuss ideas. They were characteristic of the Enlightenment in Paris in the 1700s, and offered an opportunity for women, who often hosted the events, to engage more fully in intellectual life than was possible in prior generations.
Why might the Congress of Vienna be considered a geopolitical success in the 19th century? In what way did it plant (some of) the seeds of the world wars of the 20th century?
The Congress was successful in achieving an effective balance of power in Europe which prevented major war in Europe for almost 40 years (a big deal at the time). The beginning of a unified Germany strengthening of other European nations was effective at constraining French power. In the longer term, a unified Germany ending up developing into the strongest nation in Europe by the late 1800s, demonstrating many of the same aggressive tendencies that France had exhibited under Napoleon, and ultimately the outbreak of World War I.
How did Europe's political leaders react to the intellectual trends of the Enlightenment?
Some monarchs embraced new ideas in political philosophy, and become known as "enlightened despots". These individuals believed Enlightenment principles could make them and their people more productive, but ultimately they did not intend to give political power to the people, in line with the ideas of Locke or Rousseau. No European ruler voluntarily relinquished political power during this era, but some considered the relationship between the ruler and subjects to soften, such as Frederick the Great's idea that he was the "first servant" of the state.
After rapid expansion to establish the largest European empire since the Romans, describe two key missteps which eventually led to the fall of the French Empire.
-- In 1806, Napoleon attempted to blockade Great Britain and isolate it from Europe. This "Continental System" failed as the British navy responded with its own, more effective blockade which limited French trade and shipping.
-- In 1808, Napoleon attempted to invade Portugal through Spain, but encountered fierce Spanish resistance after Napoleon put his own brother on the Spanish throne. For several years, Spanish guerrilla fighters wore down Napoleon's army in the Peninsular War, costing him 300,000 troops.
-- In 1812, Napoleon attempted to invade Russia. The vast distances, Russian scorched-earth policy, and harsh winter wore down Napoleon's army. Russians withdrew to the interior of the country, allowing Napoleon to "capture" Moscow which the Russians had already burned to the ground. After a long retreat to France, the French army lost of 400,000 troops.
What was Jean Jacques Rousseau's contribution to Enlightenment thought and values?
Rousseau was a passionate champion of individual political freedom, and alongside John Locke considered the most influential political philosopher in inspiring the American, French, and later revolutions. He believed that authority emerged from an agreement among free individuals to create a society and government, and that the people had a right to overthrow governments that did not serve the priorities of the people. He believed all forms of nobility should be abolished to ensure all people were considered equal within society.
What was the Reign of Terror? Who was primarily responsible, and what was its purpose?
The Reign of Terror refers to the period from July 1793-July 1794 during which Robespierre governed France more or less as a dictator and was radically focused on protecting the revolution from potential enemies. Up to 40,000 French citizens were executed during this period, including many royalists, but the vast majority were from the Third Estate population the revolution was intended to help. The Terror ended with radicals turning on Robespierre and executing him.
Describe the connection between Enlightenment values and the political revolutions in America and France.
Broadly, the spirit of skepticism and humanism led common people to question political and religious authority, and imagine for themselves a political system which better served their needs.
More specifically, the writings of John Locke, Jean Jacques Rousseau, Montesquieu, and other philosophers greatly influenced the American founders and French radicals. Locke and Rousseau's concepts of natural rights, and the right to overthrow an illegitimate government directly impacted the approach to both revolutions. Montesquieu's ideas of separation of powers within a government are directly reflected in the U.S. Constitution. The American Revolution also directly impacted the approach of French revolutionaries, including Lafayette and others who had participated in the American Revolution, by demonstrating how philosophical ideals could be but into practice to create real political reform.
How did women's rights develop during the Enlightenment?
While political philosophers advocated broadly for individual rights and freedoms, and women benefited from this approach, most philosophes did not consider expanding women's rights to be a priority. Women's access to education and literacy expanded during the period, but social expectations emphasized using educational opportunities to improve women's ability to manage traditional household roles. Overall, the Enlightenment did not represent a major breakthrough in the social and political rights and status of women.
What was Napoleon's policy towards the Americas?
Napoleon initially hoped to dominate the Americas as well as Europe. However, following the Haitian rebellion and French failure to retake the former colony, he decided to abandon a French empire in the Americas and sold the enormous Louisiana Territory to the United States for only $15 million.
Who was Metternich, what were his priorities for the Congress of Vienna?
Prince Klemens von Metternich was the Austrian foreign minister at the Congress of Vienna. Following the chaos of the Napoleonic Wars, Metternich wanted to prevent future French aggression, restore a balance of power so no one European country could dominate Europe again, and restore traditional monarchies across Europe.
What were the Hundred Days?
The Hundred Days refers to the whirlwind between March 1 and June 18, 1815, during which Napoleon escaped from exile at Elba, arrived on the French coast, marched to Paris while gathering a new French army, fought and lost a decisive battle to a British and Prussian army at Waterloo, and was again exiled (this time permanently) to the remote island of St. Helena.
Describe Hobbes' and Locke's views of human nature and the purpose of government. Which form of government did each advocate for?
Hobbes believed humans were inherently selfish, and without governments to provide order would exist in a state of constant war and conflict leading to "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short" human lives. He believed that humans should engage in a "social contract" to turn their rights over to a strong ruler who would govern harshly and provide structure. He believe an absolute monarchy could achieve this goal.
Locke was more optimistic towards human nature, and believed people were born free and equal with natural rights to life, liberty, and property, and that government was legitimate only if it could protect these rights. If government failed to do so, it could be rejected by the people and replaced with a government that had popular support. This support the idea modern democracy, first demonstrated in the United States.