MODULE 2
What are the common encoding manipulations when studying memory? Explain their effect on memory in one sentence.
1. Repetition: Memory increases with repetition---> Learning Curve
2. Encoding Time: Memory increases when exposed to the stimulus for longer
3. Elaboration: Memory increases when we attach meanings or visualize the stimulus
Explain Burtt's (1994) study and results on savings for information presented in infancy.
Burtt read selections from Greek dramas to a 15 month old for 3 months, repeating passages 90 times until the age of 3. They were tested 5, 11, and 15 years later and had to learn new and old passages to perfection. Results show a general decrease in the number of trials it took them to learn.
What has most recent research suggested the "magic number" for Short-Term Memory capacity to be?
While Miller's estimate of 7 was discovered to be a "compound STM estimate" of raw memory capacity, chunking, and mnemonic devices, Cowan has suggested the real magical number is 4 +/- 1.
Yes or no? Is the recency effect the result of the end of the list information being available in STM? Explain why?
No, because long term recency effect are also found, so this is not purely a phenomenon of short term memory.
True or False: In the Art Kramer lecture, stretching and toning was found to be just as beneficial and aerobic exercise.
False, the control group engaged in stretching and toning. All benefits were above and beyond what was found in the stretching and toning group.
Would you classify the memory tests used by Herman Ebbinghaus as a direct test or an indirect test of memory?
Briefly explain the two major components of Long Term Memory.
1. Explicit Memory: Memory that is open to intentional retrieval, whether based on recalling personal events (Episodic Memory) or facts (Sematic Memory).
2. Implicit Memory: Retrieval of information from long-term memory through performance rather than explicit conscious recall or recognition. Includes Classical Conditioning and Priming
How does the Ratio Rule apply to the Long Term Recency Effect?
The ratio rule outlines if there would be a long term recency effect based on the delay time between lists and recall. If delay after the list is longer than the delay between words on the list, then there is no recency effect. If it is shorter, there is a recency effect.
What is Crystalized vs. Fluid Intelligence? Which one tends to increase past young adulthood?
Crystalized intelligence refers to accumulated knowledge, vocabulary, cultural knowledge, social skills, and judgement. This tends to increase past young adulthood.
Fluid intelligence is how quickly one can learn or process new information and adapt to changing conditions; the peak of this intelligence tends to be around young adulthood, declining as time passes.
What method did Susanne Jaeggi et al. use in their study on improving fluid intelligence?
There were a total of 4 experiments using Dual n-back tests ranging from 8-19 sessions. Pretest and posttest measures of fluid IQ were taken.
What contributions did Hermann Ebbinghaus bring to the field of scientific inquiry?
Methodological: Developed the "study-test" method, studied himself using meaningless stimuli (CVC trigrams)
Empirical: First to determine how forgetting occurs over time (Forgetting Curve) and how memory is affected by repetition (Learning Curve)
Theoretical: Did not propose/test theories of memory
Explain the differences between Visual Sensory Memory (Iconic Memory) and Auditory Sensory Memory (Echoic Memory)?
1. Ionic Memory: Temporary buffer that holds visual information for a very brief period.
- Capacity is 75% of the visual screen
-Duration is 1/4 of a second
2. Echoic Memory: Temporary buffer that holds auditory information for a very brief period.
-Capacity smaller than ionic
-Duration is 3-4 sec
What is the Phonological Similarity Effect? What can get rid of this effect?
A tendency for immediate recall of verbal material to be reduced when the items are similar in sound.
This disappears if the lists increase in length and the participants are allowed several learning trials.
As discussed in lecture, what was Francis Galton's contribution to human ability and intelligence?
Galton was the first person to observe that human ability forms a symmetrical bell-shaped distribution. This means that most of the scores cluster around the mean and scores above and below the mean occur equally frequently.
What results were found in Susanne Jaeggi et al. 's study on fluid memory? Does current research support their findings?
The results show that participants got better on their working memory tasks and had significant improvement in fluid intelligence after their training. Many future studies were unable to replicate their findings and that subjects abilities improved for that/similar tasks but could not be transferred to different cognitive tasks or lead to an increase in fluid intelligence.
What is "perceptual identification"?
Perceptual identification is one type of indirect memory tests. Results demonstrate that stimuli that have been viewed previously are more easy to identify than novel stimuli.
What is the modality effect (Crowder, 1972)?
The modality effect states that there is a bigger recency effect for auditory information versus visual information, meaning better recall for the last few items on a list when you hear it rather than see it. This can be due to the fact that auditory sensory information has a longer duration.
What is the Word Length Effect? What can abolish this and why?
The word length effect is the tendency for verbal memory span to decrease when longer words are used. Words are longer to say, decay occurs, resulting in forgetting in subvocal rehearsal. Articulatory suppression abolishes the word length effect by preventing rehearsal.
What is Baddeley's Working Memory Model?
His model consists of the Central Executive, responsible for higher level reasoning tasks, which also allocates resources to the Phonological Loop (which recycles acoustic and verbal information) and the Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad (which is involved in visual imagery tasks).
What does Art Kramer's lecture conclude on improving cognitive ability?
Exercise, specifically aerobic exercise, improves a variety of perceptual and cognitive abilities as seen in interventions with older and younger high and low fit subjects.
Briefly explain the method Mitchell used in his research in "Non-conscious Priming: Invulnerable Implicit Memory?".
Mitchell studied his subjects over the span of 17 years. In 1982, he exposed subjects to black and white picture drawings three times. In 1999, black and white picture fragments were shown and asked to be identified by the subjects.
What are some ways to overcome the limits of Short Term Memory?
1. Chunking: Process by which individual pieces of an information set are broken down and then grouped together. EX: telephone number: 234-567-8901
2. Grouping: Forming categories of items in some meaningful way to remember the groups instead of each of the items.
3. Mnemonic devices
4. Add meaning
How does Visual Short Term Memory differ from Visual Long Term Memory?
-Visual STM has a limited capacity (4 +/- 1) while the capacity for visual LTM is extremely large.
-Visual STM has rapid encoding speed while visual LTM benefits from longer exposure.
-Visual LTM can store a huge amount of complexity while visual STM has a performance decline with increased complexity.
What are some findings that led to models of working memory?
-Patients with greatly impaired digit span had no problem with verbal reasoning tasks and some visual STM tasks.
-Memory span tasks had little effect on verbal reasoning ability, suggesting multiple short term storages system for different tasks (STM is modular?)
What is the relationship between working memory and fluid IQ?
There is a moderately strong positive correlation between scores on a working memory test and scores on a fluid IQ test. Meaning that people who score high on one, tend to score high on the other and vice versa. This does not mean that the relationship is causal, however--there is not strong evidence that manipulations that increase one will increase the other).