Biological Approach
Case Study of HM
Localization of Function ; Case Study ; Models of Memory
Milner and Scoville 1957
HM had his hippocampus removed to cure his epilepsy ; after surgery epilepsy was better but suffered amnesia (memory loss) ; observations, interviews, and tests were conducted
General Personality and IQ unaffected ; could hold information in his short term store (STS) if he kept rehearsing it, but would not transfer to long-term store (LTS)
Able to remember older memories from before surgery but not able to create new long-term memories (anterograde amnesia)
Procedural memory in tact but declarative memory was damaged.
Conclusions: 1) hippocampus and memory consolidation 2) MSM memory needs to be transferred from STS to LTS 3) MSM biological evidence - if all memories were in one store HM would not be able to use STM but not LTM
Cortisol and memory consolidation (Buchanan and Lovallo, 2001)
Bio: Hormones and Behavior ; Evolution ; Cog: Emotion and Cognition Disorder ; Research: Experimental Design and Placebos
48 participants (24 males/24 females) randomly allocated to receive 20mg of cortisol or a placebo (experimental method) ; Participants shown 60 pictures (arousing pleasant ; arousing unpleasant ; non-arousing neutral)
One week later they completed a memory test where they had to describe the images to two scorers (who were "blind" to their condition - double blind study)
Results: All participants remembered more arousing images than non-arousing images ; Cortisol condition recalled more arousing images than the placebo group.
Conclusion: Increase in cortisol as a result of stress can improve memory consolidation of emotional information
Define enculturation and describe Barry 1957 study on parenting styles across cultures.
Enculturation:process of acquiring cultural norms and values of one's home culture.
46 cultures across the world were studied ; ranged from low to high food accumulation (hunter-gatherer / pastoral)
Researchers measured child training practices in each culture from 5 to adolescence ; focused on obedience, responsibility, achievement, self-reliance, and independence
High food accumulating cultures placed emphasis on responsibility and obedience training ; low food accumulating cultures placed more emphasis on training children in ways that would encourage independence, achievement, and self-reliance
Conclusions: Enculturation - parents raise kids with cultural values that are going to help them be successful in economies where they live. Enculturation can happen through parents and it's important to be successful in their cultures.
What are the three subtopics of Group Dynamics?
1) Cooperation and Competition
2) Prejudice and Discrimination
3) Conflict and Conflict Resolution
What are the three subtopics of Abnormal Psych?
1) Factors Influencing Diagnosis
2) Etiology of Disorders
3) Treatment of Disorders
Caspi et. al (2003) 5 H-TT Gene
Neurotransmission, Genes and Behavior, Etiology of Disorders (Abnormal)
Participants who carried a mutation of the 5-HTT gene AND who had experienced multiple stressful life events were more likely than those who had a normal 5-HTT gene to develop depression.
Suggests a possible predisposition to depression for those with a mutated 5-HTT gene that can be triggered by stressful life events.
Describe the two relevant misinformation / reconstructive memory / reliability of memory studies by Elizabeth Loftus.
1) Car Crash Study (1974)
2) Lost in the Mall (1995)
Detail the social cognitive theory of Bandura and relevant studies.
Social Cognitive Theory:
1) Observational learning - someone learns a behavior by watching someone else do it - modeling of behavior (BOBO DOLL)
2) Triadic reciprocal determinism (TRD) - aka triadic reciprocal causation - idea that environmental (external factors) / internal factors, and our behavior all interact
3) Self-efficacy - an individual's belief in their own ability to organize and implement action to produced desired achievements and results.
Studies: Bandura, Ross, and Ross (1961 and 1963) ; Ismail et. al. (2017) ; TRD Caspi et. al (2002)
Describe the Robber's Cave studies in connection with one additional study regarding cooperation and competition.
See powerpoint on Human Relationships ; Answer must include Social Identity Theory, Realistic Conflict Theory, and Discussion of Subordinate Goals.
Cognitive Appraisal as a predictor of PTSD (Hitchcock et. al. 2015)
Participants aged 7-17 children who were admitted to the hospital because they experienced a one-off traumatic event (car accident, injury, house fire)
Researchers investigated correlations between negative appraisals after experiencing the traumatic event and the development of PTSD symptoms. Symptoms of PTSD were measured within one month of the trauma and again after 6 months using the Clinically Administered PTSD Scale (CAPS) (modified for children)
The kids' negative appraisals were measured using a 25-item self-report questionnaire called the Child Post-Traumatic Cognitive Inventory (CPTCI)
There was a moderate but statistically significant correlation between negative appraisals and PTSD symptom severity after 6 months.
Conclusions: Appraisals can increase the chances of developing PTSD after experiencing trauma (i.e. they're an etiology)
Fisher et. al (2005) Dopamine and Love
Techniques to Study the Brain, Neurotransmission, Localization of Function, Evolution (if in a pinch), Excitatory/Inhibitory Neurotransmitters
Hypothesis to test that dopamine rich areas of the brain are linked to feeling love and encourages monogamy.
17 participants (10 females; 7 males) aged 18-26 with an average age of 21 collected voluntary sample by advertising opportunity who were self-described "in love" with an average relationship of 7 months.
While measuring brain activity using an fMRI, participants were shown photographs of their partner 30 seconds; followed by a 40 second distraction activity ; then a photo of an acquaintance for 30 seconds ; then a 20 second distraction task.
Duration of fMRI scan was 12 minutes per participant. Showed that distinctly different areas of the brain were activated by photo of their beloved rather than an acquaintance.
These areas were dopamine rich areas of the brain associated with pleasure, arousal, and expectation of reward. Areas of the brain include right VTA (ventral tegmental area) and right caudate nucleus.
Conclusion - love while an emotion - romantic love is a motivation system that can derive long-term reward - encouraging monogamy in humans which aids in evolution - survival and reproduction of a species because one partner could encourage this.
Super simple study study about anxiety and working memory - Vytal et. al. 2013
Cognitive Processes / WMM / Emotion and Cognition
Tech and Cog Processes Extension ; Research Method: True Experiment + correlational ; Ethics: Informed Consent
Participants were 27 healthy individuals ; Two Conditions: Threat - participants were told they might get a small shock on their wrist - shock is uncomfortable but not painful ; Safe: Participants told they would not be shocked.
They were given a task that tested WM - anxiety levels were measured. Threat condition - 5% more errors ; negative correlation found between anxiety levels and WM impairment ; But as task got harder - participants in threat condition did better.
Increased anxiety can negatively affect cognition ; Anxiety might have a larger effect in easier tasks.
Describe Stone et. al., 2010 aka basketball player study in relation to both the sociocultural effect of stereotypes and cognitive approach (schema theory, biases in thinking and decision making, and reliability of cognitive processes)
Confirmation Bias
51 Princeton University undergrads ; listened to 20 minute recording of college basketball game with written transcript (thought they were in a study about radio vs. tv - reasonable deception but needs debrief).
Given a player's name and told to listen to evaluate. Half shown photo of white athlete ; half photo of a Black athlete - completed a questionnaire based on evaluations of natural ability, performance, and contributions.
Ratings consistent with stereotypes in sports. Black men more associated with athletics and playing the game ; white men contributions because of intelligence and making up for lack of physical ability with "effort"
CONFIRMATION BIAS and EFFECT OF STEREOTYPES
(See Cohen 1981 - waitress/librarian study for comparable EQ prompt)
What are the conditions for conflict resolution as put forth by Allport in 1954? What conditions were added by Dovidio et al in 2003?
Conflict will improve if conditions are met:
Equal status of the groups within the conflict situation
Intergroup cooperation (cooperative interdependence)
Common goals (subordinate goals)
Support of authorities, law, or custom (exists within supportive norms)
2003 - Dovidio, Gaetner, and Kawakami added:
Opportunity for personal acquaintance between members, especially when members do not conform to stereotypical expectations
Development of Intergroup friendships
TV and Eating Disorders in Fiji study (Becker et. al. 2002) that can also be utilized for social cognitive theory and social norms or HL extension for SoCo - Globalization
Participants - native Fijian teenager girls
Data gathered 3 months after TV was introduced and 3 years later
Eating Attitudes Test (EAT) was used to gather data ; qualitative semi-structured interviews also conducted
EAT scores increased with 29% having a EAT score greater than 20 - which represents risk for eating disorders
Girls with TV in homes 3x more likely to have 20+ EAT score ; vomiting after eating went from 0% to 11% ; Dieting went from being rare to 69% having tried it and 75% feeling too big or fat.
The "thin ideal" portrayed in western media could cause a rise in risk factors for developing an eating disorder.
Gilbertson et. al. (2002) Twin-Study of Hippocampal Volume and PTSD
Bio: Techniques to Study the Brain (MRI) ; Genetic Similarities ; Genes and Behavior
Abnormal: Etiologies and Explanations of One Disorder
Compared the hippocampal volume of veterans with PTSD ; All pairs of twins had one twin who did not go to war (trauma unexposed) while the other twin did go to war (trauma exposed)
Some trauma exposed twins developed PTSD while others did not. Researchers used MRI to find the volume of their hippocampi and compared this across the twins.
Results: Veterans with PTSD had an average hippocampal volume 10% smaller than veterans without PTSD. ;; Negative correlation between symptom severity and hippocampal volume. (Higher the symptom severity ; lower the volume)
Trauma-unexposed twins of veterans with PTSD had smaller hippocampal volume than trauma unexposed twins of veterans without PTSD
Conclusions: Hippocampal volume is a pre-existing risk factor for developing PTSD after trauma exposure (i.e. a small hippocampus is an etiology)
Conclusions:
Shaw and Porter (2015) False Memories of Committing a Crime
Cog: Reliability of Cog Processes ; Reconstructive Memory
Research Method: True Experiment ; Ethics: Informed Consent and Debriefing
70 Canadian college students (Hint: WEIRD) Randomly assigned to the "criminal condition" or "non-criminal condition)
Interviewed three times over three weeks
Criminal condition: Asked to recall two events: 1) a true event (details provided by family) and a fictional account of committing a crime (e.g. theft or assault) when they were about 10-14 years old (they thought this was true and that details had also been given by family)
Non-criminal condition: also asked to recall two events - a fictional account of an emotion event (e.g. dog attack) and a real event
Researchers encouraged participants to practice visualization techniques at night and used subtle social pressure by saying most people can remember these kinds of things if they try hard enough.
Results: By the third interview, 21/30 (70%) of the participants in the criminal condition had a false memory of committing a crime. ; The results showed a similar rate of false memories for those in the non-criminal condition.
Conclusion: This study provides evidence that false memories can be created based on how people are questioned.
What are Berry's (1997) 4 acculturation strategies?
1) Assimilation - Losing belonging to heritage culture and completely adopting new cultural norms.
2) Integration - Adopting cultural values and norms of both new while maintaining strong connection with home culture.
3) Separation - Maintaining heritage culture and rejecting new culture.
4) Marginalization - losing a sense of belonging to heritage culture and new culture.
Studies for Acculturation:
Lyons-Padilla et. al. (2015) ; Torres et. al. (2012) ; Nap et. al. (2014)
Discuss the findings of Bruneau and Saxe 2012 perspective giving and perspective taking study. Then discuss the findings of the study modeled after it with Palestinians and Israelis.
See Psych of Human Relationships powerpoint
Karl et. al. (2006) The Brain and PTSD: Meta-Analysis of MRI studies on patients with PTSD
Bio: Techniques to study the brain (MRI)
Abnormal: Etiologies and explanations of one disorder
Combination of 50 studies that investigated correlations between PTSD and brain regions.
Included 23 hippocampal studies, 18 amygdala studies, and 9 other. All studies, used MRI and the DSM-IV (previous version to current DSM-V) to diagnose symptoms of PTSD
Results: Strongest correlation was between reduced hippocampal volume and PTSD symptoms. There was a correlation between reduced amygdala volume and PTSD symptoms (smaller effect size).
Studies on children found a correlation between reduced frontal lobe volume and PTSD symptoms (but interestingly these studies did NOT find a link between the hippocampus and PTSD.)
Conclusion: Abnormalities in size of the amygdala, hippocampus, and the PFC (pre-frontal cortex) could be etiologies of PTSD.
Kuhn et. al (2014) - BIO / COG / DEVELOPMENT
Bio - techniques (MRI) and Neuroplasticity
Cog - Models of Memory - WMM AND Tech and Cogn extension
Dev - cognitive development and development as a leader
152 teenagers (14 years old) - measured how much time they spent playing video games
MRI measured their cortical thickness in various parts of the brain including the dlPFC (which is associated with working memory)
Results: There was a "robust positive association between cortical thickness and video gaming duration" I.e. Kids who played more video games tended to have a thicker dlPFCs. The correlation was 0.30.
Boys tended to play more video games than girls. However, even after the researchers controlled for gender, age, and parents' education levels, the correlation remained.
Conclusion: Computer games may have a positive effect on working memory because they help the development of the dlPFC.
West et. al. (2017) The effects of playing Mario Brothers on the hippocampus
Cog: Cognitive processes ; HL Extension: Positive effects of technology on cognition
Research method: true experiment and correlational study ; Ethics: Informed consent and anonymity
Participants were 55-75 years old ; Randomly allocated to one of three conditions: 1) Playing Super Mario 64 2) Taking online piano lessons 3) Control - no tech training
MRI scans measured hippocampal volume before and after 6 months. Memory tests were also administered.
Results: The Super Mario group had: increased grey matter in their hippocampi ; and improvements in short-term memory tests
Memory improvement was positively correlated with an increase in hippocampal grey matter.
The music group has increases in their dorsolateral PFC (pre-frontal cortex) but not their hippocampus.
The control group had experienced a shrink in hippocampal volume.
Conclusions: Computer games can have a positive effect on brain development, even in older participants. This could improve cognition.
Cite studies of cultural dimensions on behavior related to individualism and collectivism.
Bond and Smith, 1997 - 133 studies from 17 different countries ; replications of Asch line conformity study
Individualistic cultures had lower levels of conformity compared to collectivist cultures ; Other factors also affect conformity - group size and percentage of out-group members
Others:
Discuss at least two studies related to prejudice, discrimination, and implicit bias that using an Implicit Association Test (IAT)
Possible studies:
1) Guilty by implicit racial bias - Levinson, Cai, and Young 2010
2) Implicit Prejudice and the Obama Effect - Columb and Plant (2011)
3) Outgroup Size and Intergroup Prejudice - Savelkoul et. al. (2011)
See powerpoint for full details.
Luby et. al. (2013) Socioeconomic status, parenting, stress, and brain development
Bio: Techniques used to study the brain (MRI), Neuroplasticity, and Neural Pruning
Abnormal: Etiologies and Explanations of one disorder
Studied 145 children over 10 years
Questionnaires, observations, and MRIs measured correlations between poverty, stressful life events, and parent-child interactions with hippocampal volume.
Results: Lower SES (socioeconomic status) correlated with lower hippocampal volume ; Lower SES correlated with lower amygdala volume
Positive parent-child interactions correlated positively with hippocampal volume (higher volume).
Parenting and stressful life events were mediating variables: poverty increased stress levels and affected parenting which had an effect on the hippocampus.
Conclusions:
1) Neuroplasticity - socioeconomic status influences neuroplasticity because it affects brain development by increasing stress and negatively affecting parenting
2) Neural pruning: stress may be accelerating the neural process, which reduces the volume of the hippocampus.