Implicit Bias
This tool, created in 1998 by Anthony Greenwald and Mahzarin Banaji, measures split-second reaction times to sort black/white faces with "good" and "bad" words.
Implicit Association Test (IAT)
Sociologist Paul Hirschfield posits that while labels may have little impact on individual identity, mass criminalization severely damages this form of upward advancement.
Social mobility
This informal, volunteer-based institution, established in Boston in 1636, was one of the earliest forms of policing in colonial America.
(Night) watch
Potter argues 19th-century mercantile elites pushed for organized, publicly-funded policing mainly to secure this for their factories and businesses.
Stable, disciplined workforce
This device, strapped to Tyrell's ankle as a probation condition, alerted his probation officer whenever he went more than a few hundred feet from home.
Electronic monitoring (EM) OR ankle monitor
A psychological instrument must meet these two criteria (consistency across repeated tests and actually measuring what it claims to measure) and critics argue the IAT fails both.
Reliability and validity
Victor Rios's term for the cycle in which institutions repeatedly relabel and stigmatize a young person in response to an original label.
Labeling hype
First formally organized in the Carolina colonies in 1704, this institution is identified as the origin of modern policing in the South.
Slave patrol
Both Potter and Rios ultimately describe policing as serving this broader function, beyond fighting crime, maintaining order on behalf of dominant political and economic interests.
Social order
This statewide police database, which listed Jose as a gang member, can add five to twenty-five years to a future felony sentence.
CalGang
This is the number of years after publishing Blind Spot's sweeping claims that Greenwald and Banaji admitted, in a 2015 paper, that the IAT should not be used to classify people as likely to discriminate.
2 years
Sociologist Elijah Anderson's term for the set of informal rules governing displays of toughness and violence as self-protection in poor, violent neighborhoods.
The code of the street
According to Potter, 19th-century American police forces emerged less in response to crime and more in response to this.
Disorder
The label 19th-century economic elites used to frame the poor, immigrants, and free Blacks as the inherent source of crime and disorder.
Dangerous classes
This is the number of boys in Rios's study who reported having at least one parent with a drug or alcohol problem.
18
This University of Colorado psychologist's shoot/don't-shoot studies found officers were no more likely to shoot an unarmed black target than an unarmed white one.
Joshua Correll
Rios describes this paradox where institutions treat labeled youth as if violence and crime are inevitable for them, and in doing so create the very conditions including stigma, exclusion, distrust that push youth toward the behavior the label predicted.
Self-fulfilling prophecy (of criminalization)
This 1929 commission, appointed by President Hoover, became the first official U.S. government body to investigate organized crime.
Wickersham Commission
Rios found police often leave serious crime unaddressed within certain apartment complexes and alleys because these spaces are treated this way by law enforcement.
Invisible OR outside police purview
The two teenage boys (one Black, one Latino) whose life stories anchor this chapter of Punished.
Tyrell and Jose
The original 1998 press release claimed this percentage of people showed measurable unconscious prejudice.
90 to 95 percent
This is the core distinction Rios draws between classic labeling theory and his own "labeling hype."
The shift from labeling as a cause of deviance to labeling as an ongoing, escalating system of social control
Historian Sydney Harring's term for the 1970s–80s police reforms that cut force size, shifted to one-officer patrol cars, and broke policing into narrower specialized tasks.
Taylorization
This UCLA law professor and vice chancellor for Equity, Diversity and Inclusion (2015 starting salary: $354,900) promoted the "behavioral realism" movement in law.
Jerry Kang
Over three years, Rios counted this many citations issued to the boys in his study for offenses like loitering, curfew violations, and disturbing the peace.
42