Challenges to morality (relativism, subjectivism, etc.)
What is metaethics?
The study of the meaning, nature, and justification of moral claims.
What is a maxim?
A personal principle or rule of action.
What is utility?
Usefulness; contributors to well-being and happiness.
What are virtues?
Good dispositions/excellences of character.
What is the difference between normative and descriptive ethics?
Normative ethics asks what people ought to do (what we should do), while descriptive ethics studies what people actually do or believe.
According to Kant, what can be considered the only unconditional/unqualified "good" in the world?
A good will
According to Mill, what is considered the one intrinsic "good"?
Utility/happiness
According to Aristotle, what is the "chief good"?
Happiness
Explain the difference between ethical egoism and psychological egoism.
Ethical egoism says people ought to act in self-interest, while psychological egoism says people, in fact, always act in self-interest.
Explain the difference between a categorical imperative and a hypothetical imperative, giving an example of each.
Categorical imperative: unconditional moral law (e.g., “Do not lie”). Hypothetical imperative: conditional on a goal (e.g., “If you want to pass, study for the exam”).
Explain the difference between act-utilitarianism and rule-utilitarianism.
Act-utilitarianism follows actions that lead to the most happiness (evaluates individual actions); rule-utilitarianism follows rules that generally maximize happiness.
Explain how continent person differs from virtuous person.
Continence: acting rightly but desires and emotions are not aligned; Virtue: acting rightly with ease and desire aligned.
How does the existence of moral progress challenge cultural relativism?
Cultural relativism claims that morality is relative to each society’s norms. Moral progress (e.g., abolition of slavery, women’s rights) implies that some changes are objectively improvements, suggesting that societies can be better or worse morally, which cultural relativism struggles to explain.
Explain the difference between acting in accordance with duty and acting from duty, and provide an example.
Acting in accordance with duty: The action happens to align with what duty requires, but the maxim is based on some other motive (personal gain, fear, habit, or desire). Morally right in action, but lacks moral worth.
Acting from duty: The action is done because of respect for the moral law itself, and the maxim reflects that principle. This is morally right and has moral worth.
Explain why rule utilitarianism might forbid lying, even if lying would produce more happiness in a particular case.
Rule utilitarianism evaluates the long-term consequences of following a general rule. If lying were universalized, trust would collapse, reducing overall happiness, so lying is generally prohibited.
A person feels compelled to act morally even against their desires. What concept does this illustrate, and how does it relate to moral character?
Continence: acting rightly despite contrary desires and emotions -> a continent individual's moral character suffers inner turmoil
How might moral disagreement across cultures challenge moral objectivism?
Challenge: differing moral beliefs suggest no universal truth.
Suppose a company advertises a product by exaggerating its benefits, knowing some customers will be misled into buying it. Explain, from a Kantian perspective, whether this treats the customers as a means or a mere means, and why.
According to Kant, the company is treating customers as a mere means because it is using them to achieve the company’s profit without respecting their rational capacity to make informed decisions, and in other words, deceiving/coercing them for their own ends. Treating someone as a mere means violates the Formula of Humanity, which requires that people be treated as ends in themselves, not just as tools for someone else’s goals.
Explain how justice might interfere with utilitarianism.
Justice might interfere with utilitarianism because justice emphasizes fairness, rights, and protection of individuals, while utilitarianism emphasizes maximizing overall happiness or well-being. In some cases, an action that maximizes total happiness might violate individual rights or treat people unfairly.
A person is extremely generous to the point of harming their own livelihood. Using the Doctrine of the Mean, explain why this may not be virtuous.
Excess generosity (being wasteful) is a vice; true virtue lies in balancing giving to help others with taking care of oneself.