Jeopardy

Topic 1

100

What's the primary function of the Leucocytes?

To defend the body against infection.

200

Explain the bohr effect 

When the proportion of carbon dioxide in the tissues is high,the affinity of heamoglobin for oxygen is reduced. 

300

Classify each of the monosacharides (glucose is one) and correspond them to make specific polysacharrides.

Glucose and glucose = maltose

Glucose and fructose = Sucrose

Galactose and glucose = Lactose

400

State the differences and similarities of Amylose and Amylopectin

-both are polymers

-Amylose is unbranched and amylopectin is branched

-Amylopectin is easy to break off and use the energy and amylose is more difficult

-Amylose only has 1,4 glycosidic bonds and amylopectin has both 1,4 and 1,6.

500

Explain why waters properties is so useful

Water's properties are incredibly useful due to its unique combination of characteristics, which are crucial for sustaining life and supporting various biological processes. At the A-level knowledge level, here are some key reasons why water's properties are so valuable:

1. High Polarity and Hydrogen Bonding:

   • Water molecules are polar, meaning they have a partial positive charge on one end (hydrogen) and a partial negative charge on the other end (oxygen).
   • This polarity allows water molecules to form hydrogen bonds with each other and with other polar molecules, such as sugars and proteins.
   • Hydrogen bonding gives water its high cohesion (molecules sticking together), adhesion (molecules sticking to other substances), and surface tension, which are essential for processes like capillary action and maintaining the integrity of cell membranes.

2. High Specific Heat Capacity:

   • Water has a high specific heat capacity, meaning it can absorb and store a large amount of heat energy without significant temperature change.
   • This property helps regulate temperature in living organisms and environments, providing thermal stability and buffering against rapid temperature fluctuations.
   • It also contributes to the moderation of climate by stabilizing temperatures in bodies of water and coastal regions.

3. High Heat of Vaporization:

   • Water has a high heat of vaporization, requiring a considerable amount of energy to change from a liquid to a gas.
   • This property allows water to absorb heat during evaporation, such as sweating in humans and transpiration in plants, cooling the organism or surface involved.

4. Density Anomalies:

   • Water exhibits density anomalies, meaning its density decreases as it freezes (solidifies) compared to its liquid state.
   • This property causes ice to float on water, insulating the liquid below and preventing bodies of water from freezing solid, which would be detrimental to aquatic life.

5. Solvent Properties:

   • Water is an excellent solvent due to its polarity, allowing it to dissolve a wide range of substances, including polar and ionic compounds.
   • This property is essential for biological processes such as digestion, transportation of nutrients and waste in organisms, and chemical reactions within cells.

6. Cohesion and Adhesion:

   • Water molecules exhibit strong cohesion (attraction between molecules of the same substance) and adhesion (attraction between molecules of different substances).
   • These properties facilitate the movement of water against gravity in plants (capillary action) and contribute to the structure and function of cell membranes.

Overall, water's unique properties make it indispensable for life on Earth, serving as a universal solvent, temperature regulator, and essential component of biological systems. Its versatility and abundance play a fundamental role in sustaining ecosystems and supporting diverse forms of life.

Topic 2

100

Define turgor

When the osmotic force moving water into the plant is balanced by the pressure potencial forcing it out,the plant is rigid.

200

What's an integral protein?

Integral proteins are those that span throughout the width of the cell membrane. Therefore, they are also called transmembrane proteins. A transmembrane protein has the following structures; A hydrophilic domain that is present on the cytosolic side of the membrane.

300

State the structure of a phospholipid molecule

2 hydrophobic tails,A glycerol head (hydrophillic) and a phospate.

400

Explain the role and function of the transfer RNA in protein synthesis.

Found in the cytoplasm,the shape is the result of hydrogen bonding between different bases.One part of the RNA molecule has a sequence of three bases that matches the genetic code of the DNA and corresponds to one specific amino acid.Called the anti codon.Because of this peptide bonds form,to build long chains of amino acids.

500

Explain the process of protein synthesis

Protein synthesis is the process by which cells build proteins using the information encoded in DNA. This process involves two main stages: transcription and translation.

1. Transcription:

   • Transcription takes place in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells (or the cytoplasm in prokaryotic cells) and involves the synthesis of messenger RNA (mRNA) from a DNA template.
   • The process begins with the enzyme RNA polymerase binding to a specific region of DNA called the promoter.
   • RNA polymerase unwinds and separates the DNA strands, allowing one of the strands to act as a template for mRNA synthesis.
   • Complementary RNA nucleotides (A, U, G, and C) are added to the growing mRNA strand according to the base-pairing rules (A pairs with U, G pairs with C).
   • As RNA polymerase moves along the DNA template, it continues to add nucleotides until it reaches a termination signal, at which point it detaches from the DNA, and the mRNA molecule is released.

2. Translation:

   • Translation takes place in the cytoplasm and involves the conversion of mRNA into a polypeptide chain (protein) with the help of ribosomes, transfer RNA (tRNA), and amino acids.
   • The mRNA molecule leaves the nucleus and attaches to a ribosome in the cytoplasm.
   • Ribosomes "read" the mRNA codons (three-nucleotide sequences) in a sequential manner.
   • Transfer RNA molecules carry specific amino acids to the ribosome. Each tRNA molecule has an anticodon that is complementary to the mRNA codon.
   • As the ribosome moves along the mRNA strand, it brings together the appropriate tRNA molecules, allowing the amino acids to form peptide bonds between them, thus building the polypeptide chain.
   • This process continues until the ribosome reaches a stop codon on the mRNA, signaling the termination of protein synthesis. The newly synthesized protein is then released from the ribosome.

Topic 3

100

Define chromatid

One strand of the replicated chromosome pair that is joined to the other chromatid at the centromere.

200

What happens in the stage prophase in mitosis.

Prophase is the first phase of mitosis, the process that separates the duplicated genetic material carried in the nucleus of a parent cell into two identical daughter cells. During prophase, the complex of DNA and proteins contained in the nucleus, known as chromatin, condenses.

300

Explain plasmolysis

The situation when a plant cell is placed in hypertonic solution when so much water leaves the cell by osmosis that the vacoule is reduced and the protoplasm is concentrated and shrinks away from the cell walls.

400

Explain how a cell undergoes meiosis

Meiosis is a specialized type of cell division that occurs in sexually reproducing organisms. It involves two consecutive divisions, known as meiosis I and meiosis II, resulting in the formation of four haploid daughter cells from a single diploid parent cell. Meiosis is crucial for the production of gametes (sperm and egg cells) with half the chromosome number of the parent cell, ensuring genetic diversity in offspring.

Here's a simplified overview of the key stages of meiosis:

1. Prophase I:

   • Chromosomes condense and become visible under a microscope.
   • Homologous chromosomes, one inherited from each parent, come together and pair up in a process called synapsis. This pairing is facilitated by the formation of a protein structure called the synaptonemal complex.
   • During synapsis, genetic material can be exchanged between homologous chromosomes through a process called crossing over, resulting in genetic recombination and increased genetic diversity.
   • The nuclear envelope breaks down, and spindle fibers begin to form.

2. Metaphase I:

   • Homologous chromosome pairs line up along the equatorial plane (metaphase plate) of the cell.
   • Spindle fibers attach to the centromeres of each homologous chromosome pair.

3. Anaphase I:

   • Homologous chromosomes are pulled apart by the spindle fibers, moving towards opposite poles of the cell.
   • Each chromosome still consists of two sister chromatids joined at the centromere.

4. Telophase I:

   • Chromosomes arrive at the poles of the cell, and the nuclear envelope may re-form around each set of chromosomes.
   • The cell undergoes cytokinesis, resulting in the formation of two daughter cells, each containing half the number of chromosomes as the original parent cell. However, each chromosome still consists of two sister chromatids.

5. Prophase II, Metaphase II, Anaphase II, and Telophase II:

   • These stages are similar to those of mitosis but occur in haploid cells.
   • Prophase II: Chromosomes condense again, and nuclear envelopes break down if re-formed during telophase I.
   • Metaphase II: Chromosomes line up along the metaphase plate.
   • Anaphase II: Sister chromatids are pulled apart and move towards opposite poles of the cell.
   • Telophase II: Chromosomes arrive at the poles, and nuclear envelopes reform around them.
   • Cytokinesis occurs, resulting in the formation of four haploid daughter cells, each with a unique combination of genetic material due to crossing over and independent assortment during meiosis I.

These haploid daughter cells mature into gametes (sperm or egg cells) in animals or spores in plants, which can then fuse during fertilization to restore the diploid chromosome number in the resulting zygote.

500

State what CDKs are. good luck.

Enzymes involved in the control of the cell cycle by phosporylating other proteins,activated by attachment to cyclins.

Topic 4

100

Define placebo effect

When patients appear to respond to a drug simply because of pyschological factors. that do them good.

200

Give out an example for each of these adaptations

1. Physiological adaptation

2.Behavioural adaptation

any appropriate response is valid.

300

Explain how a phylogenetic tree works

A phylogenetic tree is a diagram that illustrates the evolutionary relationships among a group of organisms. It shows branching patterns from a common ancestor to depict how species or groups are related. Constructed using morphological or molecular data, the tree's nodes represent divergence points, while branches indicate lineages. The length of branches can represent genetic distance or time. Phylogenetic trees help classify organisms and study evolutionary history, aiding research in fields like evolutionary biology and biodiversity conservation.

400

How do you measure genetic biodiversity within a population.

Genetic biodiversity within a population can be measured by assessing allelic diversity, heterozygosity, polymorphism analysis, genetic drift, effective population size, gene flow, and genetic distance. These methods provide insights into the level of genetic variation and divergence within populations, aiding in understanding evolutionary processes and conservation efforts. And by using the formula heterozygosity index = number of heteroz

divided by the number of individuals.

500

Explain the process of clinical trials.

-Animal trials start

-Human trials start if animal trials are succesful

-In the drug trials some people are given the placebo, is used as a control.

-Phase 1 starts and the drug is given to a few selected healthy volunteers.

-Phase 2 and 3 start with double-blind trials,this means neither the doctor or patient knows if they have the drug or not.

-Phase 3 confirms the effectiveness and safety of the drug by many patients receiving it.

Bonus

100

State what the larynx is

the voice box

200

How do enzymes work and what are their function?

To lower the activation energy and catalyse a reaction,enzymes form a complex with a substrate.

Only one substrate will fit the shape of the active site

Enzymes are biological catalysts.

lock and key hypothesis

300

What are exocrine glands and what do they provoke in cystic fibrosis

Its the chloride transport system and when it doesent function properly it leads to a production of thicker mucus

400

State what is Villi and explain its function

Villi are small finger-like projections found in the lining of the small intestine, increasing its surface area for efficient nutrient absorption. They contain blood vessels and a lymphatic vessel called a lacteal. Villi function to absorb nutrients from digested food, facilitated by microvilli on their surface, which contain enzymes and transport proteins. Nutrients absorbed by the villi are transported into the bloodstream for distribution throughout the body, while the lacteal absorbs dietary fats and fat-soluble vitamins. Overall, villi play a vital role in maximizing nutrient absorption in the small intestine.

500

What is the palisade mesophyll layer and explain its role.

Where most of the palisade cells are therefore where most of the photosynthesis occurs due to high amounts of chloroplasts, its the second layer of the plant after the plants upper epidermis.