Language and The self

Language and Thought

100

• Suggests that all languages reflect shared human thoughts and cognitive processes.
• Language similarities (e.g., nouns, verbs) enable translation across languages.

Universalism

200

The structure of a language entirely determines the ways its speakers perceive and think about the world.

• For example: If a language lacks future tense, its speakers might perceive time differently, focusing more on the present.

Linguistic Determinism

300

• Thought and language evolve independently, merging around age two to form mental thought.
• Cognitive development is deeply tied to language use.

Vygotsky – Thinking and Speaking

400

• Linguistic Determinism: Language structure dictates thought patterns.
• Linguistic Relativity: Language influences perception of reality but does not strictly determine thought.

The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis

500

Language use reflects social beliefs and biases.

Negative or inappropriate language can perpetuate inequality and prejudice

Social Equality

Language and self Identity

100

• Individual speech patterns are unique and shaped by factors such as location, class, education, age, and personal preference.
• Influences include regional accents, slang, and personal choices in speech style.

Idiolect

200

The human brain is inherently designed to understand and use language.

Innatism

300

Noam Chomsky's theory: The brain contains a "language acquisition device" that allows learning and using language from birth.

Nativism

400

• Language and identity are shaped by experiences and sensory input rather than innate ideas.
• Locke described the mind as a "blank slate" filled by experiences.

Empiricism

500

Face-Saving Theory of Politeness 

• Politeness strategies manage social interactions and mitigate face-threatening acts.
• Includes positive and negative politeness techniques.

(Brown and Levinson, 1978)

Language and Gender

100

Refers to the use of language to soften statements, making them less direct or assertive. It often conveys uncertainty, politeness, or caution.

Examples:

• Phrases: "I think," "I guess," "It seems like," "Maybe," "Sort of," "Kind of."
• Words: "Perhaps," "Possibly," "Could," "Might."

Hedges/Hedging

200

Women's language is perceived as weaker and less certain compared to men’s

Robin Lakoff (1975) - Deficit Theory

300

• Argues that beliefs about men and women speaking different "languages" are not universal truths.
• Minimal difference exists in how men and women speak.
• Miscommunication between genders often leads to tension and conflict.

Deborah Cameron - "The Myth of Mars and Venus"

400

Examined children's play:

• Boys adopt hierarchical roles.
• Girls make suggestions and accept others’ ideas.
• Hierarchy emerges when girls assume leadership (e.g., playing house).

Marjorie Goodwin

500

• Men interrupt more than women in mixed-gender conversations.
  • In 11 mixed-gender conversations, men interrupted 46 times, women only 2.
• Criticized by Geoffrey Beattie (1982) for methodological limitations, suggesting interruptions may not indicate dominance.

Zimmerman and West (1975) - Dominance Theory

Language and Social Class

100

• Differentiated between "restricted" and "elaborated" codes.
• Restricted codes are typical of lower-class speech (short, context-bound).
• Elaborated codes are characteristic of middle-class speech (complex, abstract).

Basil Bernstein (1971)

200

• Studied working-class communities in Belfast.
• Closed networks used non-standard grammar forms (e.g., "I come down yesterday").

Lesley and James Milroy:

300

• Examined phonological and grammatical features in Norwich.
• Working-class women were more aware of prestigious forms and code-switched

Peter Trudgill (1974) - Norwich Study

400

• Studied the pronunciation of "r" in New York department stores.
• Higher prestige was associated with more frequent use of "r."
• Working-class individuals adjusted speech less than upper-class speakers.

William Labov (1966) - New York Study

500

is a variety of language (a dialect or speech pattern) associated with a particular social group. It reflects the linguistic habits of individuals who share common characteristics, such as:

1. Social Class: E.g., working-class vs. middle-class speech.
2. Age Group: The language used by teenagers compared to older adults.
3. Occupation: Specialized language or jargon used in certain professions.
4. Cultural Background: Speech patterns tied to specific ethnic or cultural groups.

Sociolect

Mixed sub topics

100

Short sentences, limited vocabulary, informal use of language.

Working-Class Speech

200

Complex sentences, extended vocabulary, focus on individual expression ("I")

Middle-Class Speech

300

Thought occurs in natural spoken languages.

Spoken language shapes cognitive development and conveys thoughts effectively.

Peter Carruthers - Thinking in Natural Language

400

Proposes the "Difference Theory":

• Male vs. female language represents contrasts:
  • Status vs. Support
  • Independence vs. Intimacy
  • Advice vs. Understanding
  • Information vs. Feelings
  • Orders vs. Proposals
  • Conflict vs. Compromise
• Women are considered cooperative (overlap supportively), while men are competitive.

Deborah Tannen (1990)

500

Observed phonetic patterns in Bradford (e.g., omitting the "h" sound in words like "hat").

Malcolm Petyt (1985)