Cognitive Models
Describe the Multi-Store Memory Model by Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968)
Sensory Register (environment input) > when we give ATTENTION to information, it is transferred into STM store. > With REHEARSAL it is maintained in store. Without rehearsal information is DISPLACED. Information is TRANSFERED/CONSOLIDATED into LTM store and can be RETRIEVED from LTM into STM.
Contrast system 1 vs system 2 thinking (use at least 3 words for each system)
system 1 - intuitive, automatic, fast, effortless, unconscious
system 2 - conscious, deliberate, effortful, logical, analytical, slow.
Define confirmation bias
A tendency to seek out, focus on, and give greater credence to evidence that fits with existing beliefs. (selective exposure, perception & retention)
We tend to discount information that contradicts our beliefs, often seeing that information as irrelevant or an exception to the norm.
Define operant conditioning
Operant conditioning argues behaviors are modified in response to a reward or punishment.
e.g., Application of ABCs - An antecedent comes before a behavior and may trigger that behavior. A behavior is anything an individual does. A consequence is something that follows the behavior.
in experimental research (experiments), what is the best way that researchers avoid researcher bias and participant bias?
double-blind studies -where both the researchers and the participants are unaware of certain critical details, such as which participants are assigned to the experimental group and which are in the control group (e.g,. receiving a placebo)
It can reduce both participant and researcher bias, improve the validity of results by ensuring observed effects are due to the treatment, and minimize the placebo effect, making them a gold standard for research.
What is the duration and capacity of the STM and LTM stores of the MSM model?
Each of the memory stores differs in the way information is processed (encoding), how much information can be stored (capacity), and for how long (duration).
The capacity of STM has traditionally been assumed to be limited to around seven items (7+/-2), and its duration is 6–18 seconds. With rehearsal, information may stay in STM for up to 30 seconds.
Long-term memory is believed to be of indefinite duration and potentially unlimited capacity
What is a limitation of the dual processing model
Model oversimplifies cognitive process -
It doesn't explain... how our thinking and decision-making could be influenced by emotion, how or when one system overrides the other, how people can make mistakes even after using careful reasoning.
Give an example of anchoring bias
E.g., bargaining in a Marrakesh market in Morocco. When you walk into the shop and see a lamp you want. When you ask the shop owner for the price, the price he gives you becomes an anchor for your negotiation. If they start the price at 100 USD, you will judge the price you pay based on that price. If you end up paying 60 USD for the lamp, you will feel successful in your bargaining. If they start with 250 USD, you will be thrilled if you can pay only 140 USD.
In reality, you most likely have no understanding of the true value of the lamp. Your decision to buy the lamp and your subsequent satisfaction with the price all come down to the first piece of information you received - the original price quoted by the shop owner.
E.g., an item priced at $1.99 vs $2.00 - the lower number (1) is set as a low anchor.
Eg.,. Jeff sees a sweater priced at $102, then find another one for $98. The second feels like a bargain to Jeff, even if it's still overpriced — because his brain is anchored to the higher price
Using the following terms, explain the process of classical conditioning:
- Neutral stimulus (NS)
- Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
- Conditioned Stimulus (US)
- Conditioned Response (CR)
Classical conditioning is a type of learning in which an initially neutral stimulus (NS) is paired with a stimulus that elicits a reflex response - an unconditioned stimulus (UCS). When this happens consistently over time, the NS becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS). When the previously neutral stimulus is presented, there is a conditioned response (CR), as if the UCS were presented.
If the pairing of the NS and the UCS ceases or becomes inconsistent, then the CR will stop—this is called extinction. In the case of Pavlov's dogs, if the metronome is played but consistently no food is presented, the dogs will no longer salivate.
Identify TWO ways to avoid researcher bias in experimental research.
Random allocation of participants to experimental and control groups ensures that group differences occur by chance rather than researcher influence.
Anonymize participant data during analysis to prevent researchers from associating individual participants with specific outcomes.
Researchers should develop and strictly follow a detailed standardized procedure for all aspects of the study, including data collection and analysis. All researchers involved in the study must be trained in the procedure.
Researchers should use objective and reliable tools to measure outcomes. If a reliable test exists, it is better than designing one’s own test, which may be overly subjective or influenced by personal biases.
Data should be interpreted by a team of researchers. Ideally, researcher triangulation would include researchers or statisticians not connected to the research. Multiple analysts should be able to verify the findings independently.
Method and data triangulation should be used to cross-check results, reducing the risk of bias tied to a single approach.
The study design, methodology, and results should undergo peer review to identify and address potential sources of bias. In addition, replication should be encouraged to confirm the findings.
How do schemas affect memory and the way we recall information?
Schemas influence how we remember events. When we recall something, our brain often fills in missing details using schemas (confabulation), based from previous knowledge and experiences.
This means people from different cultures, or with different life experiences, can have very different schemas for the same concept.
Filling in missing information can lead to distortions or false memories. Features can also be exaggerated (sharpened) or downplayed (levelled).
How might relying on system 1 thinking lead to biased decisions?
e.g., anchoring bias, confirmation bias,
Describe Tversky and Kahneman's researching findings
People were strongly influenced by the first number they saw, even when they knew it’s unrelated. This demonstrates anchoring bias, where judgments are “anchored” to initial information.
spun a wheel rigged to land on either 10 or 65. Then asked to estimate percentage of african nations in UN was higher or lower.
What happens in the brain during classical conditioning?
New associations are formed between the neutral stimulus (NS) and an unconditioned stimulus (UCS).
Once this association is established, the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS), triggering a conditioned response (CR) even when the UCS is absent.
How does random allocation reduce researcher bias in experimental studies?
It eliminates group differences caused by researcher influence.
Random allocation ensures that differences between experimental and control groups occur by chance, not through researcher influence.
How does Bartlett's (War of the Ghosts) study support Schema Theory?
Participants were asked to recall the story The War of the Ghosts. When they retold the story over time, they made systematic changes:
These changes happened because participants used their existing cultural schemas to make sense of the story; details were unconsciously changed to fit the norms of British culture.
Why do we tend to use system 1 thinking?
1. we are cognitive misers (lazy thinkers, wanting to use as little energy as possible)
2. ego depletion - when the task is too difficult or we do it for too long
3. cognitive load is too high
All about Law of Least Effort - we always choose the least demanding course of action.
Why is anchoring bias used? explain why we might use the anchor
When we don’t have enough relevant knowledge, we need a starting point. The anchor provides that starting point. It reduces uncertainty quickly, even if it is irrelevant.
Ego depletion refers to reduced cognitive resources after effortful thinking or self-control tasks. When mentally tired, we rely more on shortcuts and we are less motivated to think critically about the anchor.
We may lack time to make an informed decision. Without time to search for alternatives, we stick close to the initial number or idea.
Mood and social pressure affect how critically we evaluate the anchor. Under certain moods or group settings, we accept anchors more easily. A positive mood often increases reliance on System 1 thinking.
What is positive punishment?
Give an example of how this might be applied to getting people to stop littering in a local park.
Positive punishment is when you get something to get you to stop doing something.
In the case of littering, positive punishment would be giving someone a fine to get them to stop littering.
In qualitative research, what practices can researchers employ to improve credibility in their researcher and reduce researcher bias?
Peer review - other psychologists review the study’s methods, data collection, and interpretation helps to identify any biases the researcher may have missed.
Member checking - researchers' check the interpretation of participants' responses with the participant.
Researcher triangulation - more than one researcher conduct an interview or observation, interpret the data and compare results. If researchers disagree, they can discuss and reach a consensus, leading to more credible findings.
Personal reflexivity - when a researcher thinks about how their own personal values, beliefs, and experiences may have influenced their ability to be objective when carrying out and interpreting the data in their study.
Epistemological reflexivity - when a researcher reflects on how the research's methodology may have influenced the findings. For example, the use of a focus group might lead to conformity effects. The use of face-to-face interviews on sensitive topics might lead to a lack of disclosure. On the other hand, the fact that the researcher knew the participants may mean that they were more comfortable disclosing sensitive information.
An audit trail is a thorough documentation of the research process that allows others to track the steps taken throughout the study. Researchers should keep detailed notes of how they made decisions during the study, including why certain data was included or excluded, how codes were developed, and how themes were identified. This allows others to review the process and check for bias.
The model is over-simplified. It assumes that each of the stores works as an independent unit.
The model does not explain memory distortion.
The model does not explain why some things may be learned with minimal rehearsal.
The model does not explain why we can rehearse information, and it is not transferred to LTM.
The model does not explain the potential role of emotion in memory.
Describe the findings from Alter and Oppenheimer (2007) study on different font types and Dual Processing Model
Easy to read font group 10% of participants had all three questions correct vs. Disfluent font group, 65% of participants got all three questions correct.
Conclusion: When information is presented in a harder-to-read format, it triggers System 2 thinking — more deliberate and analytical. In contrast, easy readability encourages System 1 thinking, which may lead to errors. This supports the dual processing model by showing that cognitive strain can lead to better decision-making
Why might we engage with confirmation bias?
Evaluating all evidence objectively is mentally demanding. It is easier to accept information that fits existing schemas. It also reduces cognitive load and speeds up decision-making.
We actively seek out information that aligns with our beliefs. Confirming what we already believe is positive for our self-esteem; information that contradicts what we believe makes us uncomfortable.
We remember belief-consistent information better. Inconsistent information is less likely to be encoded or retrieved.
Beliefs may also be part of our group identity. Social norms reinforce these beliefs. When information contradicts these beliefs, it also challenges our group identity and may risk social rejection.
From an evolutionary point of view, quick decisions based on prior experiences may be beneficial to survival.
Provide an example of:
Fixed-ratio schedule
Variable-Interval Schedule
Fixed-ratio - reinforcement occures after a fixed number of responses. e.g., getting one free meal after the purchase of 10.
Variable-Interval - varying amount of time passes between each reinforcement. e.g., winning a video game, checking email.
Why is p-hacking considered unethical?
It undermines the reliability and integrity of scientific research.
Because it compromises the scientific method, leading to misleading conclusions and reducing the credibility of research.
P-hacking refers to the practice of manipulating statistical analyses in order to obtain a statistically significant result, typically by making adjustments to the data or analysis until the p-value falls below a certain threshold, usually 0.05.