L2s and culture
Describe how learning language (L2s) and culture are connected.
Language reflects a group’s worldviews, thought process, and lifestyle (culture)
Each culture places its own individual imprint on a language.
They are closely linked and best acquired together, to promote authentic communication.
Learning culture is learning “new ways of thinking, behaving, and living in an L2 community” (p. 77).
Define language planning. What is it?
Language planning are those efforts to solve a language-related problem or to shape language behavior in some way.
They are attempts to ‘influence the behavior of others with respect to the acquisition, structure, or functional allocation of their language codes’ (p. 45)” (Wiley et al., 2016, p. 49)
These efforts can be to promote, prohibit, or tolerate certain language-related behaviors/uses, or they could be absent altogether.
What are the options that we've reviewed to provide feedback on oral output in L2s?
Direct / explicit corrective feedback - Direct correction of inaccurate / non-target-like form (most effective in getting learners to produce "accurate" form)
Prompts (metalinguistic, elicitation, clarification) - Strategy to lead the L2 learner to the target-like form, asking them to use it (effective in getting learners to produce "accurate" forms)
Recasts - Correct use of the instructor of the target-like form, but doesn't require L2 learner to produce it or necessarily notice it (least effective in getting learners to produce "accurate" forms)
What is L2 pragmatics, can it be taught, and what other conditions should be present to facilitate this learning?
--L2 pragmatics “is the study of how learners come to know how to say what-to-whom-when.”
--Takes a long time in order to be produced effectively and needs to be explicitly instructed to learners - to facilitate noticing
--L2 pragmatic competence is imperative for communicative competence in culturally-specific contexts
--High intensity of interaction with NSs facilitates L2 pragmatic competence (dense social networks), even if learners are abroad for a while, this length of SA experience does not always facilitate L2 pragmatic competence if they don't have intense interactions with NSs
What is the fundamental difference between heritage and L2 learners?
L2 learners are taking the language as a subject matter and do not have home experience, while heritage learners have been raised with the language as part of their home lives (and are taking the language as well), but were schooled in the dominant language (e.g., English in the US).
There is a wide range of skills of heritage learners (usually pronunciation is more target-like), and often their linguistic skills reflect their multicultural and multilingual realities (that often are stigmatized unfairly by instructors and other speakers).
What is the danger if we don't examine our L1 culture(s) when learning about L2 cultures?
Without examination of our L1 culture, we believe our way is the “right”, “normal”, “natural” way to do things.
What 3 US Supreme Court rulings did we discuss in class (from Wiley & García) that shaped LPP in the US in the 20th century?
•1923 Meyer vs. Nebraska – Ruling against restrictive “FL” education in public schools
•1927 Farrington v. Tokushige – Ruling in favor of the rights of parents in Hawai'i to use languages other than English privately
•1974 Lau vs. Nichols – Ruling in favor of non-English-speaking children to receive accommodations in learning English (p. 51)
For corrective feedback on written output in the L2, what has been shown to work (based on our reading)?
•Explicit, direct CF on L2 grammar works; unfocused CF on written output is not as helpful.
•Asking students to process errors, keep a log, or consistently examine one type of error are more useful techniques for acquisition.
What is Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory and how does it relate to L2 learning?
All learning is a social act embedded in a cultural context
•L2 learners and their ability to acquire a L2 are likewise influenced by the social and cultural contexts that surrounds them.
•L2 acquisition (i.e., learning) is a result of interacting, collaborating, and negotiating meaning with others in a social situation.
•L2 learners can reach their Zones of Proximal Development through this scaffolding with competent/expert peers and their L2 instructor to achieve more than they would alone.
What is L2 advancedness and what are the behaviors and predictors of L2 advancedness, acccording to Malovhr and Moreno?
L2 advancedness refers to “…language use that satisfies a certain level of sophistication in contextually and culturally appropriate settings, relying on a combination of register, voice, structural complexity, and cross-cultural [intercultural] competence" and goes beyond simply advanced oral proficiency (ability to explain in L2 in present, past, and future tenses).
Some predictors and behaviors of L2 advanced learners (typically, not always):
•Typically they have started L2 before university setting
•Their L1 typology is similar to their L2
•They are highly motivated, intrinsically / integratively
•They are the agent of their L2 use – they independently seek out opportunity for extramural use of L2
•They enjoys a challenge in the L2 (e.g., complex tasks)
•There has been positive development of an L2 identity (e.g., successful in socio- and intercultural negotiation)
What is one able to do if they possess intercultural competence, according to ACTFL?
1. Communicate in the language of the people with whom one is interacting.
2. Interact with awareness, sensitivity, empathy, and knowledge of the perspectives of others.
3. Withhold judgment, examining one’s own perspectives as similar to or different from the perspectives of people with whom one is interacting.
4. Be alert to cultural differences in situations outside of one’s culture, including noticing cues indicating miscommunication or causing an inappropriate action or response in a situation.
5. Act respectfully according to what is appropriate in the culture and the situation where everyone is not of the same culture or language background, including gestures, expressions, and behaviors.
6. Increase knowledge about the products, practices, and perspectives of other cultures.
What are some important migration movements that help us understand the linguistic history of the US?
•1492 - Pre-1492: 300+ Indigenous languages spoken across North America
•1600s-1700s - Dutch, English, Spanish, French, German communities establish multilingual colonies
•1800s - Massive immigration brings Italian, Polish, Chinese, and dozens of other languages; treaties
•1900s - English-only movements vs. bilingual education debates
•Today - 350+ languages spoken, Spanish largest speech community other than English; 1 out of 5 children speak a language other than English.
According to Allen (2025), what is important to keep in mind for when L2 learners are asked to produce L2 written products?
•L2 writing is more than just translating material from L1
•It is a multidimensional process - it is a social/individual act, involves linguistic/cultural/social dimensions, and there are many multimodal options that students should be able to use (e.g., videos, social media, subway signs, online ad for airline)
•Should be a multi-tiered process
What macrosocial factors and other social components influence L2 learning / SLA?
--Institutions are: educational, political, and legal; L2 learners may face legal, political, and educational disadvantages, depending on the status of the L1 and L2
--Social factors can influence SLA – age (L1 development, motivation), gender identities (e.g., opportunities for interaction), ethnicity (e.g., appearance)
--Access (or limited access) to learning opportunities – informal/formal contexts, types of L2 programs available, methods of instruction that dominant classrooms
What is the Seal of Biliteracy?
It is a program throughout the 50 states that incentivize students to continue L2 learning throughout their K-12 journeys. There are specific tests (ACTFL OPI, for example) that can help provide the level of proficiency.
What are 2 models we've seen to understand (L2) cultures?
3 P's (ACTFL) - products, practices, and perspectives
The cultural iceberg
How is the US fairing in L2 learning at present?
What suggestions have been made to improve our efforts (based on Spolsky)?
•First, for background...68+ million people speak another language in the US (22% of the population) and 1 out of 5 children speak a language other than English in the US.
•While there are efforts like IB programs, Dual Language Immersion schools, and the Seal of Biliteracy, the US is failing to create a multilingual citizenry (Wiley & García, 2016):
•The US ranks last in the age at which students enrolled in L2 instruction;
•We cut 651 L2 college programs from 2013 to 2016;
•We saw a −15.3% decreased enrollment in L2s from 2009 to 2016 in college programs;
•We had only 19.7% of K‐12 students enrolled in an L2 course in 2014-2015
•In the US about 25% of elementary schools have L2 programs; 91% of HS
•The US ranks last in terms of the requirements for the study of L2s
Suggestions in the Wiley and García article (based on Spolsky):
1.There needs to be efforts promoting the protection of linguistic freedom and the elimination of linguistic discrimination
2.There have to be adequate programs for teaching of dominant language (English) - not just submersion and more support for these learners (Maintenance-oriented programs).
3.Development of respect and knowledge of speakers of diverse languages
4. Integrative, multifaceted language capacity programs – bilingual education, programs abroad, etc.
How can we describe "translanguaging" and how might it be considered different from codeswitching?
•Translanguaging “is the act performed by bilinguals of accessing different linguistic features or various modes of what are described as autonomous languages, in order to maximize communicative potential.” It is not only a way of being, doing, and knowing, but it is also a pedagogy. (García, 2009, p. 140). It gives more students a voice and allows more students to fully participate, as they can utilize all of their linguistic and cognitive resources. It is an inclusive practice.
•Codeswitching is a similar idea (the use of 2 codes in one conversation, be them different varieties of language or different languages), but this term does not emphasize the important inclusive and pedagogical nature of the practice.
What educational models are there related to languages (besides L2 classes)?
•Immediate integration / submersion in English
•ESOL – English as a Second/Additonal Language – varied amount and type of support
•Transitional Bilingual Education–
early or late exit, use of home language
•Maintenance Bilingual Education (e.g., Dual Language Immersion) – goal is to maintain home language and acquire L2 (e.g., Blythe Academy of Languages in Greenville County)
Explain the difference between monoglossic and heteroglossic language ideologies.
Monoglossic language ideologies - languages are separate entities that need to be kept separate in speech; when multiple codes are used in the same conversation it is a sign the speaker is not proficient in them.
Heteroglossic language ideologies - it is not possible to demarcate and separate linguistic resources (e.g., languages); we should allow ALL language resources to be used at various points in a child's education (and not blindly prohibit their use); different languages are a cognitive resource and is a natural way of using language.
How is L2 culture best acquired to avoid reinforcing stereotypes?
1. Learn L2 culture in conjunction with L2s (for authentic communication)
2. Don't teach disjoined bits (reinforcing stereotypes)
3. Apply inquiry-based approach (student-driven, student agency) using authentic materials and CMC (where appropriate)
4. Avoid some stereotypical information in textbooks that reinforce other problematic notions.
Who are the important players in making LPP decisions?
They are typically top-down institutions, like the federal government, language strategists, and other arbiters (state or local gov't bodies or groups / universities). Or, very important movements within families (e.g., desire to maintain home languages through family LPP efforts) and communities (e.g., establish schools to maintain home languages) can shape LPP as well.
What is important to bear in mind relation variation in language in general? Why is language variation related to the L2 classroom?
•Language is inherently variable
•All languages change
•No language or variety (dialect) is objectively better than another
•Attitudes toward a language / variety is a social process and are borne from in larger sociopolitical issues
•Identity = language selection (mutually influence one another)
•Linguistic perceptions and attitudes have real and serious consequences
Language variation is related to the L2 classroom because often students are exposed to only one form / way of speaking in the classroom and have trouble engaging with NSs outside, due to a lack of exposure, awareness, and acceptance of the other forms used by NSs.
Why should students learn about L1 variation in their L2 classes?
•Helps L2 learners understand NSs through an awareness of dialectal variation
•Helps L2 learners “appear” like NSs; L2 pragmatic competence
•Promotes acceptance of linguistic diversity and removes stigmatization of non-standardized varieties
Describe the article that you researched for our class. What was the topic, how did it connect to our class, and what do you want others to know about it?
Answers vary! :)