Justify the Conclusion
Though RK Narayan was a popular writer, his body of work did not denounce capitalism and champion communism. Therefore, he was never considered for the Nobel Prize for Literature.
The conclusion above follows logically, if which one of the following is assumed?
A. To be considered for the Nobel Prize for Literature, a writer must be popular and political.
B. Writers who denounce communism and champion capitalism in their body of work are never considered for the Nobel Prize for Literature.
C. Only those writers who denounce capitalism and champion communism in their work are considered for the Nobel Prize for Literature
What is C?
Only those writers who denounce capitalism and champion communism in their work are considered for the Nobel Prize for Literature
Journalist: To reconcile the need for profits sufficient to support new drug research with the moral imperative to provide medicines to those who most need them but cannot afford them, some pharmaceutical companies feel justified in selling a drug in rich nations at one price and in poor nations at a much lower price. But this practice is unjustified. A nation with a low average income may still have a substantial middle class better able to pay for new drugs than are many of the poorer citizens of an overall wealthier nation.
Which one of the following principles, if valid, most helps to justify the journalist’s reasoning?
A. Unequal access to health care is more unfair than an unequal distribution of wealth.
B. Whether one deserves special consideration depends on one’s needs rather than on characteristics of the society to which one belongs.
C. The people in wealthy nations should not have better access to health care than do the people in poorer nations
What is B?
Whether one deserves special consideration depends on one’s needs rather than on characteristics of the society to which one belongs.
Some recent classical music can be considered masterpieces. All masterpieces have a tight melodic structure. Furthermore, any piece of classical music that does not appeal to most aficionados of that musical genre cannot be deemed a masterpiece.
Each of the following statements follows logically from the assertions above EXCEPT:
A. Only classical music with a tight melodic structure and an appeal to aficionados of that genre can be deemed a masterpiece.
B. Only classical music that has a tight melodic structure appeals to classical music aficionados
C. Some classical music that appeals to aficionados of that genre have tight melodic structures.
What is B?
Only classical music that has a tight melodic structure appeals to classical music aficionados
Basketball scout: Over the last 25 years, every professional basketball player who was at least 6 feet 6 inches tall could dunk a basketball. Maurice will begin his professional basketball career this coming year and his amatuer team lists him as 6 feet 7 inches tall. Thus, Maurice definitely will be able to dunk.
The basketball scout’s argument is most vulnerable to which one of the following objections?
A. The argument mistakes a condition sufficient for bringing about a result for a condition necessary for doing so.
B. The argument draws a general conclusion about a group based on data about an unrepresentative sample of that group.
C. The argument misinterprets evidence that a result is likely as evidence that the result is certain.
What is C?
The argument misinterprets evidence that a result is likely as evidence that the result is certain.
Those who go to college are wasting their money. The vast majority of college graduates are employed in fields that do not require their specializations, while others are unemployed. Further, contrary to common belief, the average college graduate is not paid substantially more than the average worker who is not a college graduate.
Which of the following, if true, most weakens the argument?
A. Certain professions highly prefer or require a college degree as a condition of employment, while no employers prefer an employee not be a college graduate
B. The average college graduate has more debt than the average non graduate
C. College graduates are more likely to be employed than those who are not college graduates
What is C?
College graduates are more likely to be employed than those who are not college graduates
A test that examines people on their memory capacity for spatial layouts has placed Jason in the top 1 percentile of all test-takers. We can conclude from this that his memory capacity for things that do not involve spatial layouts will be below average.
The conclusion follows logically if which one of the following is assumed?
A. The total memory capacity of the human brain is fixed and equal for all people
B. Jason has a greater proclivity to remember spatial layouts than most people.
C. It is possible for Jason to improve, through practice and effort, his memory capacity for things that do not involve spatial layouts
What is A?
The total memory capacity of the human brain is fixed and equal for all people
Executive: We recently ran a set of advertisements in the print version of a travel magazine and on that magazine’s website. We were unable to get any direct information about consumer response to the print ads. However, we found that consumer response to the ads on the website was much more limited than is typical for website ads. We concluded that consumer response to the print ads was probably below par as well.
The executive’s reasoning does which one of the following?
A. infers a statistical generalization from claims about a large number of specific instances
B. bases a prediction about future events on facts about recent comparable events
C. uses a case in which direct evidence is available to draw a conclusion about an analogous case in which direct evidence is unavailable
What is C?
uses a case in which direct evidence is available to draw a conclusion about an analogous case in which direct evidence is unavailable
No Alphas are Xenons, but all Omegas are Xenons. Therefore, no Omegas belong to the class of Homunculus.
Which one of the following assumptions permits the conclusion above to be properly drawn?
A. All Xenons are Omegas.
B. All members of the class of Homunculus are Xenons.
C. All members of the class of Homunculus are Alphas.
What is C?
All members of the class of Homunculus are Alphas.
The statement "all blue birds are birds" is true. Thus, by analogy, the statement "all suspected terrorists are terrorists" is also true.
The reasoning in the argument above is flawed because it fails to recognize that
A. Not all terrorists are suspected
B. The relationship between being a blue bird and being a bird is not of the same kind as that between being a suspected terrorist and being a terrorist
C. The relationship between being a bird and being suspected is not of the same kind as that between being blue and being a terrorist.
What is B?
The relationship between being a blue bird and being a bird is not of the same kind as that between being a suspected terrorist and being a terrorist
While tablet computer sales have increased steadily over the last 2 years, we can expect a reversal of this trend in the near future. Since they became popular in the marketplace 5 years ago, 60 percent of tablet computers sold have been purchased by people from 18 to 25 years of age, and the number of people in this age group is expected to decline steadily over the next 15 years.
Which of the following, if true, would most seriously weaken the argument?
A. Most purchasers of tablet computers over the past 2 years have been over the age of 25.
B. Sales of tablet computers to small businesses has declined over the past 2 years.
C. Most people under the age of 18 have never purchased a tablet computer.
What is A?
Most purchasers of tablet computers over the past 2 years have been over the age of 25.
Maria won this year's local sailboat race by beating Sue, the winner in each of the four previous years. We can conclude from this that Maria trained hard. The conclusion follows logically if which one of the following is assumed?
A. Maria could beat a four-time winner only if she trained hard.
B. Sue is usually a faster sailboat racer than Maria.
C. Sue did not train as hard as Maria trained.
What is A?
Maria could beat a four-time winner only if she trained hard.
Laird: Pure research provides us with new technologies that contribute to saving lives. Even more worthwhile than this, however, is its role in expanding our knowledge and providing new, unexplored ideas.
Kim: Your priorities are mistaken. Saving lives is what counts most of all. Without pure research, medicine would not be as advanced as it is.
Laird and Kim disagree on whether pure research
A. has its most valuable achievements in medical applications
B. has any value apart from its role in providing new technologies to save lives
C. expands the boundaries of our knowledge of medicine
What is A?
has its most valuable achievements in medical applications
A great film is not always appreciated by film critics when it is first released. In fact, many films now considered great were poorly reviewed upon their release; some critics even walked out of the initial screenings. Therefore, we must wait at least twenty years before determining the greatness of any particular film.
Which one of the following is an assumption that the argument requires in order for its conclusion to be properly drawn?
A. A film that is well-reviewed upon its release and remains appreciated after twenty years is unmistakably a great film.
B. If a film is not appreciated twenty years after its release, it is not a great film.
C. If initial impressions of a film might be inaccurate, its greatness cannot be determined until a period of time has passed.
What is C?
If initial impressions of a film might be inaccurate, its greatness cannot be determined until a period of time has passed.
Groups that oppose action to reduce emission of gases that contribute to global warming have major incentives to deny the existence of global warming. Many of these groups are backed by wealthy individuals or corporations that have a lot to lose from a new regulatory regime governing greenhouse gas emissions. This makes it likely that these groups’ publications will contain inaccurate information or misrepresent scientific evidence about global warming.
This argument is most vulnerable to the criticism that it:
A. Relies on the fact that a group has an incentive to produce inaccurate research as proof that their research is faulty.
B. Does not show that supporters of regulation on global warming do not have similar incentives to confirm the existence of global warming.
C. Does not lay out the argument for why global warming is correct.
What is A?
Relies on the fact that a group has an incentive to produce inaccurate research as proof that their research is faulty.
Cities benefit from hosting major sporting events, such as bowl games and major basketball tournaments, but hosting these events also presents challenges. Visitors provide business for hotels, restaurants, and stores, supporting those businesses and increasing tax revenue. On the other hand, with the influx of tourists, police forces and hospitals are often understaffed. Historically, these cities have been able to obtain enough outside workers to sufficiently meet their temporary staffing needs. For that reason, the benefits outweigh the challenges for the cities scheduled to host the next major sporting events.
Which of the following, if true, most undermines the argument?
A. The cities that will be hosting the next major sporting events are remote and will not be able to obtain any outside workers
B. There are expected to be more tourists at future major sporting events than there have been at past events
C. The businesses in the next cities hosting major sporting events do not require new customers
What is A?
The cities that will be hosting the next major sporting events are remote and will not be able to obtain any outside workers
Vague laws set vague limits on people's freedom, which makes it impossible for them to know for certain whether their actions are legal. Thus, under vague laws people cannot feel secure. The conclusion follows logically if which one of the following is assumed?
A. People can feel secure if they are governed by laws that are not vague.
B. If people do not know for certain whether their actions are legal, then they might not feel secure
C. People can feel secure only if they know for certain whether their actions are legal
What is C?
People can feel secure only if they know for certain whether their actions are legal
Political scientist: As a political system, democracy does not promote political freedom. There are historical examples of democracies that ultimately resulted in some of the most oppressive societies. Likewise, there have been enlightened despotisms and oligarchies that have provided a remarkable level of political freedom to their subjects.
The reasoning in the political scientist’s argument is flawed because it:
A. bases its historical case on a personal point of view
B. overlooks the possibility that democracy promotes political freedom without being necessary or sufficient by itself to produce it
C. appeals to historical examples that are irrelevant to the causal claim being made
What is B?
overlooks the possibility that democracy promotes political freedom without being necessary or sufficient by itself to produce it
Political scientist: Quality public education at the high school level leads to a citizenry more attuned to the problems of the community and of the society at large. But quality public education at the high school level does not necessarily lead to a citizenry capable of discerning which politicians are best equipped to address those problems, since campaign money can distort how arguments for change are presented. Consequently, rapid but foolhardy change may occur in a society that quickly improves its public education system at the high school level but does not address the problem of money in politics.
Which one of the following is an assumption on which the political scientist's argument depends?
A. Unbridled campaign contributions to candidates affect the ability of citizens to differentiate which politicians are better equipped to address community and social problems
B. Campaign reforms designed to control the flow of money in politics will likely lead to a pace of social change that is appropriate to the society.
C. Without a quality public school system at the high school level, there can be no genuine social reform.
What is A?
Unbridled campaign contributions to candidates affect the ability of citizens to differentiate which politicians are better equipped to address community and social problems
Modern medicine has taken a turn for the worse. Doctors prescribe treatments that can cause serious side effects. The ailments that doctors treat have existed for many years. Yet, the treatments prescribed are novel and dangerous. Treatment side effects cause not only things like itchy eyes or upset stomachs, but rather, depression, heart failure, and damaged immune systems. Natural remedies are preferable because they have been used widely for thousands of years. Also, most natural remedies carry comparatively low risk of serious side effects.
The argument is most clearly flawed for which of the following reasons?
A. The argument draws an overly broad conclusion
B. The argument assumes a preference for treatments that have existed for a longer time than treatments that are newer
C. The argument fails to address whether natural remedies cause side effects as severe as those of modern treatments
What is B?
The argument assumes a preference for treatments that have existed for a longer time than treatments that are newer
Modern workers are less competent than workers of the past. This fact likely comes as a surprise to some because standards are higher than ever. Employers demand higher degrees than before and more workers have bachelor's and master's degrees than at any other time. Higher degrees do not mean more competent workers, however. Recent evidence indicates that modern workers have poor writing ability, lack focus, and are inept at personal communication.
Which of the following, if true, most undermines the argument?
A. Workers of the past often obtained bachelor's and master's degrees
B. Workers of the past had poor writing ability, lacked focus, and were inept at personal communication
C. In the past, it was often more difficult to obtain a bachelor's or master's degree
What is B?
Workers of the past had poor writing ability, lacked focus, and were inept at personal communication
Psychiatrist: Take any visceral emotion you care to consider. There are always situations in which it is healthy to try to express that emotion. So, there are always situations in which it is healthy to try to express one's anger. The conclusion of the argument follows logically if which one of the following is assumed?
A. All emotions that are healthy to express are visceral.
B. Anger is always expressible.
C. Anger is a visceral emotion.
What is C?
Anger is a visceral emotion.
The Venetian Renaissance painter Vittore Carpaccio used sumptuous reds in most of his paintings. Since the recently discovered Venetian Renaissance painting Erato Declaiming contains notable sumptuous reds, it is probably by Carpaccio.
Which one of the following contains a pattern of flawed reasoning most similar to that in the argument above?
A. The anonymous painting St. Sebastian is probably an early Florentine painting since it is in tempera, and most early Florentine paintings were in tempera.
B. Since late-Renaissance paintings were mostly in oil, the Venetian late-Renaissance painter Arnoldi, whose works are now lost, probably painted in oil.
C. Most Renaissance painters worked in a single medium, either tempera or oil. Since the Renaissance painting Calypso's Bower is in oil, its painter probably always used oil.
What is A?
The anonymous painting St. Sebastian is probably an early Florentine painting since it is in tempera, and most early Florentine paintings were in tempera.
Psychologist: Those suffering addictions to alcohol or drugs often rely on people close to them to facilitate their maladaptive behavior. They often manipulate others to feel guilty by withdrawing affection or attention until the other person capitulates and seeks to ingratiate him or herself to the addict. The person then caters to the addict, helps the addict get what he or she wants—namely, drink or drugs—and their relationship has some semblance of being strengthened. This pattern of guilt-inducement and guilt-relieving behavior by the addict and the facilitating partner is repeated such that the level of manipulation escalates to the point of intolerability.
The description offered by the psychologist best illustrates which one of the following generalizations?
A. Addicts are incapable of having quality intimate relationships, so long as they continue to abuse drugs or alcohol.
B. An addict and a significant other can mutually influence each other’s behavior.
C. Inducing guilt in others is a learned behavior that goes in tandem with drug or alcohol abuse.
What is B?
An addict and a significant other can mutually influence each other’s behavior.
History Student: A widely held historical view of the Battle of Fort Sumter at the outbreak of the American Civil War is that President Lincoln deployed a strategy of reinforcement without direct military provocation to enable the Union to blame the outbreak of war on the Confederacy. One renowned historian has recently staked a controversial position that there is not enough evidence to justify this theory. Therefore, the widely held view of the outbreak of the Civil War is false.
The reasoning above is most vulnerable to the criticism that it:
A. Overvalues the opinion of one historian.
B. Does not provide enough background to support its conclusion.
C. Takes the fact the lack of evidence that something is true as evidence that it is false.
What is C?
Takes the fact the lack of evidence that something is true as evidence that it is false.
Professor: A British scholar criticized a recent publication on John Milton’s Paradise Lost, written by a colleague of mine. Specifically, the British scholar lambasted the thesis, calling it a “publicity stunt,” formulated simply to generate attention, and said that it was not a scholarly product. However, you should know that the British scholar and my colleague have personal distaste towards one another. Given that the British scholar’s criticism of my colleague is based on mere personal bias, my colleague’s thesis is clearly a product of scholarship.
The reasoning in the professor’s argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that
A. The professor himself is biased because he seems to be defending his colleague based solely on their personal relationship.
B. The professor assumes that because there are personal tensions between the British scholar and his colleague, that the colleague’s thesis must be based on scholarly merit, when in fact it may have been a publicity stunt.
C. The professor did not discuss the content of the thesis at all, and is simply offering his own opinion as evidence as to the character of his colleague’s thesis.
What is B?
The professor assumes that because there are personal tensions between the British scholar and his colleague, that the colleague’s thesis must be based on scholarly merit, when in fact it may have been a publicity stunt.