Experiments
The way that participants are allocated to conditions in a true experiment.
Random allocation
The type of observation where the researcher takes part in activities with the participants in their usual environment.
A naturalistic participant observation. If it is with the consent of the individual, then it is overt; without consent, it’s covert.
You want to carry out interviews with CEOs who are in recovery from drug addiction. What is the best way to get your sample?
Snowball sampling
Case studies use triangulation.
Name two types of triangulation
Data triangulation (from more than one source); researcher triangulation; method triangulation, theoretical triangulation (e.g. using a biologist, cognitive theorist and a social worker to carry out tests).
A correlational study aims to establish
A relationship between two variables
The problem that arises when the controls are so good that the researcher can no longer predict behaviour in a natural environment
Low ecological validity
What is one limitation of a covert observation?
It may violate ethics; if it is a participant observation, it means that notes have to be taken in private, which means that notes rely on the memory of the researcher.
What is the difference between a structured and an unstructured interview?
Structured interviews have a set of questions that must be asked; unstructured interviews are conversations that have a focus, but no specific list of questions.
What methods can be used to gather the data in a case study from the participants?
Identify one strength of a correlation study?
Can lead to further research if a relationship is found
Why is it important to replicate research?
To test the reliability of the study
What is the difference between a covert and an overt observation
Covert - aware they are being observed
Overt - unaware of being observed
Give an example of an interviewer effect.
The halo effect – where the interviewee finds the interviewer attractive; the tone of voice or body language of the interviewer which may influence the mood of the interviewee. The age or gender of the interviewer.
When finishing the case study, researchers must think about how their own personal biases or experiences may have influenced their findings.
What is this called?
Personal reflexivity
When are correlational studies common
In areas of psychology where it may not be possible to ethically or practically manipulate variables as part of an experiment
A study looked at the effect of television on aggression in children. Aggression levels were measured before television was in the community and then one year later. What type of experiment is this?
Natural experiment
Name two limitations of carrying out an overt observation.
Reactivity; social desirability effect;
expectancy effect.
What are two limitations of a focus group?
Difficult to maintain confidentiality; conformity effects; not good for sensitive or private questions; there may be status or gender influences. Sometimes difficult to facilitate. Someone may dominate.
Identify two limitations of the case study method.
Researcher bias; longitudinal which means they require a lot of time – may mean attrition of participants or researchers; difficult to generalize to other populations; not replicable.
The problem with correlations that we cannot know if x causes y, if y causes x, or if there is no true cause and effect relationship.
Bidirectional ambiguity
When an experiment is done so that neither the people who are doing the experiment nor the people who are the subjects of the experiment know which of the groups being studied is the control group and which is the test group.
Double blind control
After carrying out an analysis of her field notes, a researcher shares her interpretation of the observation with her participants. Why does she do this?
To establish credibility – that is, that the participants confirm the validity of her interpretations.
Why are focus groups open to sampling bias?
They are often samples of opportunity; in addition, researchers often exclude people based on certain characteristics that they feel would unduly influence the interview.
Case studies are difficult to generalize. What is one type of generalization strategy?
Representational generalization: can be applied to other populations;
Inferential generalization: applied to other populations in a similar situation (also called transferability)
Theoretical generalization: the results can be used to generate theories.
What are the different types of correlations that can be found?
Positive
Negative
No