Teaching and Learning
What does it mean to reconceptualize learning and generalization as performance and learning?
Learning is to know something long term and across different contexts. Performance is context specific dependent learning is context independent
What are two reasons for preferring the term DLD instead of SLI (Bishop, McGregor et al.)? What are two problems with the change in terminology from SLI to DLD (Leonard article)?
Unlike SLI, DLD includes comorbidities that impair cognitive, sensorimotor, or behavioral functioning. In addition, the relationship with the language disorder is unknown. An example is ADHD.
The term “specific” indicates there is an impairment only in the language component. This is not true as other areas are affected. Examples of additional impairments include executive function, social cognition, perception, and motor control.
1. The change in terminology can exclude some children who still have considerable struggles.
2. Switching to DLD after using SLI can lead to confusion. This creates a lack of awareness of the new term across clinical settings.
What are three types of literacy knowledge that may be acquired during the emergent literacy period? Why are children from low print homes at risk for learning to read?
Literacy artifacts- less exposure to print
Literacy events- less reading experiences
Literacy knowledge- less familiarity with language and reading
There is less exposure to language and discourse which leads to impairments when learning to read
What are two reasons for not using IQ-achievement discrepancy to identify children with a specific learning disability? (Fletcher pp. 12-13). How should SLD children be identified according to Fletcher.
It lacks validity- IQ-discrepant students and students with low achievement consistent with IQ who do not meet criteria for an intellectual disability do not differ practically in behavior, achievement, cognitive skills, response to instruction, and neurobiological correlates once definitional variability is controlled (Stuebing et al., 2002).
IQ is not a strong predictor of intervention response when
the initial level of academic development is included
Response to intervention (RTI) - Fletcher
Using early screening and tracking progress
Evidenced based instruction
Identifying children based on response to interventions rather than the IQ discrepancy model
What are the four sources of knowledge that impact spelling according to Apel? Provide examples of how these sources of knowledge impact spelling. Explain what MGRs are so a parent or teacher would understand.
Phonemic awareness- ability to think, talk, and manipulate speech sounds which best predicts spelling
Example- spelling kat for cat
Orthographic knowledge- skills necessary to translate language from spoken to written form
Example- cas for catch
Morphological awareness - awareness of the semantic aspects of a root or base word and its corresponding inflections and derivations
Example- walked walking walks
Semantic knowledge- knowledge of the effect of spelling on word meanings
Example- bear vs. bare
MGRs are a mental picture of what a word looks like when it is written. So for example
Describe and give two examples of a procedural view of learning (Kamhi/Ullman).
Procedural learning requires practice and is slower than declarative memory. It is implicit unconscious learning. This knowledge is eventually processed more rapidly and automatically than knowledge in declarative memory.
Speaking and word recognition
What are two factors that have contributed to the continued decline of clinical services to children with DLD? What are three of McGregor’s (2020) suggestions to increase the number of children with DLD who receive clinical services?
There is a lack of awareness among clinicians and teachers about do not recognize DLD or the impacts it has on children’s lives. This can lead to children not being correctly diagnosed until impairments are too severe.
Clinicians and researchers have been unable to validate diagnostic tools to screen for DLD
1. Increase awareness across educators and clinicians
2. Advocate for policy changes
3. Use early intervention to screen and identify children before impairments cause the child to become further behind to their peers
What achievement characterizes the orthographic stage?
When you can rapidly sight read. This is the ability to read over and recognize letter patterns instead of sounding out words.
What is the simple view of reading? What are the three subgroups or RD based on this view of reading?
Reading comprehension is dependent on word recognition and language comprehension. If either word recognition or language comprehension is impaired then reading comprehension will be poor. Good reading comprehension requires both skills to be strong.
Dyslexia--- poor decoding, good
comprehension
Poor Comprehenders—good decoding, poor
comprehension; 33% of students in this group
meet criteria for DLD
Dyslexia + DLD--- poor decoding, poor
comprehension
Provide three suggestions based on Joshi et al. and Apel’s powerpoints about how spelling should be assessed and three suggestions for how it should be taught.
Assessment
Spelling assessment should go beyond right/wrong scoring examine why errors occur (e.g. missing phonemes, pattern violations) for diagnostic insight.
2. Use a diagnostic‐prescriptive approach — choose or design spelling inventories that sample orthographic features (phonology, morphology, pattern rules) to pinpoint “holes” in knowledge.
3. Embed assessment in writing and vocabulary tasks — assess spelling in meaningful, connected writing contexts rather than only in isolation
Taught
1. Planning is Essential
Effective writing begins with thorough planning. This stage involves gathering ideas, organizing thoughts, and outlining the structure of the piece. Proper planning sets a strong foundation for the writing process.
2. Drafting Translates Ideas into Text
The drafting stage is where ideas are transformed into written form. It's important to focus on getting ideas down without worrying too much about perfection at this stage.
3. Revising Enhances Clarity and Coherence
Revising involves re-examining the content to improve clarity, coherence, and logical flow. This step may include reorganizing paragraphs, refining arguments, and ensuring that the writing effectively communicates the intended message.
What are four characteristics of good reasoning (Stanovich, 2009)?
Considering the pros and cons before a decision
Gathering information before a decision
Considering other perspectives before coming to a conclusion
Thinking about a problem before making a decision
What are three specific areas in which SLPs are uniquely qualified to provide services to students with written language disorders?
Letter identification -letters that should correspond with target sounds ex- letters placed on blocks that indicate word positions during therapy or referring to the letter name
Phoneme awareness/sound letter correspondence- children need to associate sounds with specific phonemes ex- using phoneme identity what is the same sound in these words “mom, milk, muffin” SLPs need to be involved with identification, assessment, intervention, monitoring, and follow-up
Word attack skills and sight word reading- using phoneme awareness, letter identification, and knowledge of sound-letter correspondences to read new words. A solid understanding of visual and orthographic information is needed to complete this. Using the Phonological
Analysis and Blending/Direct Instruction Program(PHAB-DI) with the Word Identification Strategy Training Program (WIST) has been proven to be the most effective. This trains phonological analysis, blending, and sound-letter association skills in the context of word recognition and decoding instruction.
What is the self-teaching hypothesis?
Each successful decoding of a word provides
an opportunity to acquire word-specific
orthographic information that enables the child
to read words by sight. With minimal explicit instruction, many children learn to focus on morphological and orthographic patterns rather than trying to associate each letter in a word with a sound.
What are three differences between the old and suggested new IDA definition of dyslexia.
The 2025 version characterizes the definition is word reading—affecting accuracy, speed, or both—and/or spelling, that can vary depending on the
written language system. The old version characterizes it as neurobiological in origin.
The 2025 version does not give a cause of dyslexia. The old version states the cause is a result of a phonological impairment.
The 2025 version states early intervention results in better outcomes, which the old version does not include.
What are three differences between spoken and written language (Kamhi/Catts- Ch. 1, pp. 15-20) and two myths and/or basic truths about writing discussed in the Richardson article.
Learning to read requires explicit knowledge of the phonological aspects of speech.
All humans are in environments in which spoken language is the principal means of communication
Spoken language comprehension also requires analysis of utterances into smaller phonological units
Truths-Teaching students grammar and mechanics through drills often does not work.
Patterns of language usage, tangled up in complex issues like personal and group
identities, are not easy to change.
Myths- writing is a "basic skill," almost anyone can teach first-year composition. First-year composition as a way
to prepare students for writing in other disciplines.
Provide three examples of desirable difficulties and discuss the research that supports them (PP presentation, Bjork, Kamhi 2014).
Varying the Conditions of Practice- when instruction is constant and predictable, learning appears to become conceptualized. This is false as learning is not retained or able to be transferred to other contexts. By varying conditions of practice you can enhance the ability to recall at later times. An example is studying in different settings.
Providing Contextual Interference during Learning- Intertwining learning of several topics enhances long-term performance. An example is a student who is studying math and English mixing practice questions together. Interleaving improves retention and recall. This is different from blocked practice that focuses on one topic at a time.
Distributing or Spacing Study and Practice- Increasing the amount of time between studying increases long-term performance. Massing practice supports short-term performance. Distributing materials over a long period of time enhances recall.
What would you say to convince SLPs that they should play a role in assessing/targeting reading, spelling, and writing in therapy?
These skills are crucial for students to access language. Using language and literacy interventions increases their ability to succeed. Literacy and language go together. A child needs to have a good foundation in both to be successful.
What does it mean to say word recognition is “word based” rather than stage based? How do children read novel words differently from familiar words?
Reading development is word based. The goal is to develop rapid sight-word recognition with little to no decoding. Words are gradually recognized by sight when word-specific orthographic information is learned. Print exposure and learner characteristics are predictors of how quickly novel words are sight read.
Children read novel words by decoding. They read familiar words through sight reading.
What is the relationship between DLD and dyslexia according to Adlof and Hogan (2018)? What are three clinical implications of the frequent co-occurrence of DLD and dyslexia?
Dyslexia is a language-based disorder that is defined as difficulty with word level reading and spelling skills, which are in turn caused by phonological deficits.
DLD is a broad term that affects many areas of language. Some examples are phonology, morphology, syntax, vocabulary, and pragmatics
They both involve deficits that are unexpected
They both require adequate environmental stimulation
Dyslexia, the unexpected deficit is in word reading, and adequate stimulation is appropriate instruction in reading.
DLD, the unexpected deficit is in overall language development,
and adequate stimulation is human language interactions
Children with dyslexia have identified language needs outside the phonological domain.
Intervention needs to target a child’s strengths and weaknesses across all domains of language since they all impact reading comprehension.
Students with dyslexia are at risk for having the Matthew effect. This is categorizes by slower language acquisition and slower growth of knowledge across their lifetime. This is due to a reduced reading experience.
What is the primary unit of written language? Spoken language? What impact does this difference have on learning to write?
Spoken language clause
Written language sentence
When you learn to write, you have to understand what a sentence is.
1- Why do the vast majority of teachers believe in the auditory vs. visual learning style distinction? 2- Why should effort be praised rather than ability?
1- Schools are mainly concerned with meanings/concepts. They do not focus on what they look or sound like. Teachers are constantly reinforced to teach in the auditory vs. visual learning style. It is commonly practiced to provide repetition for children by reading off of slides and testing to elicit learning.
2- It is important for students to be encouraged that they can achieve a goal. This will show students you have confidence in them. Giving praise allows them to persist and take responsibility for their own goals.
What is the main finding from research about treatment (dose) intensity? (Kamhi/Eisenberg 2014 articles) Provide two suggestions for targeting complex sentences and two suggestions for targeting narrative/expository discourse. (Kamhi, 2014; Scott, 2014).
Research shows that more intensity in treatment is not always better. More words in treatment does not equal a better outcome. For example, patients who recently recovered from an injury such as a stroke benefit from less intensity in therapy than patients who have had a few months to recover. McGinty conducted a study concluding that increasing the frequency of sessions made patients’ outcomes worse. One concern of increasing intensity of therapy was plateau effects, which were more frequent with repetitive interventions. (Kahmi, 2014). Eisenberg stated that patients with LI require a high-dosage therapy. (Eisenberg, 2014).
Complex sentences- Target the meanings and/or functions conveyed by the syntactic structure rather than the structure itself. Expression of various mental state verbs (e.g., know, hope, wish, think). Conjoined and embedded clauses.
Narrative/expository discourse- Conceptual knowledge and working memory
What are three types of rules that characterize sublexical knowledge?
Phonological- patterns of phonemes in a language
Morphological- how morphemes are combined (prefixes, suffixes, and roots).
Orthographic- letter combinations in written forms