Research Traps
Question: A study finds that ice cream sales and crime are related. What is the problem AND what explains it?
Answer: Third variable problem (e.g., temperature)
Explanation: A third variable, like hot weather, increases both ice cream sales and crime, so the relationship is not causal.
Question: A student studies to avoid failing. Is this positive or negative reinforcement?
Answer: Negative reinforcement
Explanation: The behavior increases because an unpleasant outcome is avoided.
Question: Forgetting because information was never processed. What is this?
Answer: Encoding failure
Explanation: The information never entered memory storage in the first place.
Question: A teen is exploring identity. What stage is this?
Answer: Identity vs. role confusion
Explanation: Adolescents develop a sense of self; failure leads to confusion.
Question: Which measure is most affected by outliers?
Answer: Mean
Explanation: Extreme values pull the mean in their direction.
Question: A researcher claims one variable causes another based on correlation. Why is this incorrect?
Answer: Correlation ≠ causation; directionality problem
Explanation: We cannot determine cause-and-effect or which variable influences the other in correlational data.
Question: A child gets scolded to stop behavior. What type of conditioning AND consequence?
Answer: Operant conditioning + positive punishment
Explanation: Behavior decreases because something unpleasant is added.
Question: New information blocks old information. What is this?
Answer: Retroactive interference
Explanation: Recently learned material interferes with recalling older information.
Question: A child is distressed when a caregiver leaves but happy when they return. What attachment style?
Answer: Secure attachment
Explanation: The child trusts the caregiver and uses them as a secure base.
Question: What does a high standard deviation indicate?
Answer: High variability
Explanation: Scores are spread out far from the mean.
Question: Participants act differently because they know they’re being watched. What concept explains this?
Answer: Hawthorne effect
Explanation: People change their behavior when observed, which can bias study results.
Question: A bell causes salivation after pairing with food. What is the bell?
Answer: Conditioned stimulus (CS)
Explanation: It was neutral but gained meaning through association.
Question: A witness changes memory after hearing new details. Why?
Answer: Misinformation effect
Explanation: Memory is reconstructive and can be altered by new information.
Question: A person changes behavior publicly but not privately. What concept explains this?
Answer: Compliance
Explanation: Behavior changes outwardly without internal belief change.
Question: A distribution is skewed right. How do mean and median compare?
Answer: Mean > median
Explanation: High outliers pull the mean to the right.
Question: A researcher defines “stress” as heart rate + survey score. Why is this important?
Answer: Operational definition
Explanation: It clearly defines how a variable is measured, allowing replication and consistency.
Question: Behavior continues even when rewards are unpredictable. Why?
Answer: Variable ratio schedule
Explanation: Unpredictable rewards create very persistent behavior that is hard to stop.
Question: Why are flashbulb memories unreliable despite confidence?
Answer: Reconstructive memory
Explanation: Even vivid memories are reconstructed and can become inaccurate over time.
Question: Helping decreases when more people are present. Why?
Answer: Bystander effect / diffusion of responsibility
Explanation: Individuals feel less responsible when others are around.
Question: Where do 68% of scores fall in a normal distribution?
Answer: Within 1 standard deviation
Explanation: Most scores cluster close to the mean.
Question: A study lacks random assignment. What is the biggest issue AND what does this prevent?
Answer: Cannot determine causation
Explanation: Without random assignment, preexisting differences between groups prevent valid cause-and-effect conclusions.
Question: A learned behavior disappears, then returns later. What TWO concepts explain this?
Answer: Extinction + spontaneous recovery
Explanation: Behavior weakens without reinforcement but can reappear after time.
Question: A student confuses similar concepts during a test. What is happening?
Answer: Interference
Explanation: Similar information competes during retrieval, causing confusion.
Question: Someone blames personality instead of situation. What error is this?
Answer: Fundamental attribution error
Explanation: We overestimate personal traits and underestimate situational factors.
Question: A student is in the 75th percentile. What does this mean?
Answer: Scored higher than 75% of others
Explanation: Percentile rank compares relative standing, not percent correct.