No Longer Vanishing

Pre Contact

100

Upon the arrival of the Europeans, what was the native population of North America?

Exact population is unknown and is still a hotly disputed subject to this day.

200

What are the four factors likely to have controlled population growth for the early contact era?

Biotic environment, technology, living conditions and political organization.

300

If the biotic environment, archaic technology and living conditions were not sufficient enough to explain the under population of southern regions in early North America, which factor would be?

Sociopolitical structures and organizations. (Political organization)

400

Name three significant causes of mortality in the early contact era.

Environmental hazards (drowning, exposure, exposure to frost, food poisoning), occupational hazards (hunting accidents), famine (death from starvation), man-made (tribal feuds, revenge, resource dispute).

500

Fertility, a major component of natural population growth fell short of potential in the early contact era, why?

Reportedly small number of offspring, frequent barrenness of women, absence of animal milk leading to a longer dependency on breast milk and more spaced out pregnancies, purposely or accidentally delayed conception.

19th Century

100

During the second half of the nineteenth century, did governmental officials determine if Indigenous populations were on the rise or the decline?

Governmental officials determined that Aboriginal populations were on the rise. The Indian population, estimated at 107,000 in 1901, rose to 133,000 in 1931 and to 166,000 in 1951 or an average annual increase of 0.73 and 1.11 percent over the two periods, respectively.

200

When did the Indigenous jurisdictional land transfer occur and what was it called?

The jurisdictional transfer in 1867 of Rupert's land and the North-Western territories - a huge mass of land that was home to numerous Indigenous tribes, between the Hudson Bay Company and the Canadian Confederation - was a watershed not only in Canada’s history but in Native peoples’ history as well.

300

Caught up in the French and British colonial power rivalries, inter-tribal conflicts grew in scope and destructiveness, how was this made possible and for what resource was it perpetuated?

The introduction of the firearm and horse greatly expanded the distance and magnitude at which wars could be waged. At the time, frequent battles over shrinking hunting grounds and the vast depletion of game, due the ever expanding reaches of the fur trade, led to debilitating effects on the aboriginal populations.

400

According to the reading how did the land treaties ultimately end up increasing the Indigenous population?

Treaties were intended as a means of political and economic control over the Indigenous peoples to promote their ultimate assimilation, these policies turned into a means of securing their survival as a distinct society. They helped the First Nations to assert their political identity, and in conjunction with other developments that we shall probe next, they also helped to bring about a remarkable demographic growth.

500

The creation and implementation of the Indian Act of 1867 was an important milestone for Aboriginal populations. Why did this act affect Indigenous peoples in the past, which resulted in a few uprisings?

Indians acquired a special political status in Confederation, and this was bound to have far reaching political, social and economic consequences. The policy concerning reservations, whereby Indians were given tracts of land for their exclusive use, was pursued with greater vigour.

20th Century

100

What were the main diseases during the 20th century, that wrecked havoc on the Indigenous populations?

What is influenza and tuberculosis, which remained pervasive until the advent of penicillin and antibiotics shortly after World War II.

200

After World War II what was the reasoning for Indigenous populations to give up their nomadic lifestyle?

The shift from a subsistence and trade-based economy to a wage and welfare economy led Indians to relinquish much of their nomadic way of life.

300

According to statistical data was there a increase or decrease in infant mortality?

The pre-war rate of infant mortality, in the vicinity of 200 infant deaths under age one per 1,000 births, dropped to between 80 and 90 by 1960 and to 12 by 1990.

400

What was the main reason for the increase in fertility after Indigenous peoples started giving up their nomadic lifestyle?

The major factor in the fertility increase was the massive switch from traditional, protracted breast-feeding to bottle-feeding. Younger mothers either gave up breast-feeding completely or drastically reduced it.

500

During the 1960's what were the main reasons for the decrease in fertility?

The birth rate took a nosedive when economic and medical progresses were reaching new heights. Also, another reason was it occurred in a socio-economic context of rapid modernisation with all its manifestations, i.e. decline in infant mortality, gains in education, greater female labour force participation and aspirations for higher living standards.

Current Challenges

100

What are the three main factors which affect population’s demographics?

What are death rate, fertility rate, and migration.

200

1985 Bill C 31 was instrumental in Indigenous demographics for which reasons?

Bill C 31 removed the early gender discrimination whereby the children of an Indian woman married to a Canadian (including non-status Indian) automatically lost their Indian status. Around 120 000 were reinstated with Status between 1985 and 1996.

300

What are a few reasons why using the information from the Canadian government on Aboriginal Peoples might not be a valid way to understand the Indigenous population and demographic of Canada?

Information is used under the guidelines by the Canadian constitution which broadly identifies numerous Indigenous groups under 3 categories; Indian, Inuit, and Metis. In addition, the definition of an Aboriginal person is constantly changing in legal terms. The situational based character can make it difficult to understand stability of the records.

400

In the 1996 consensus the eligibility of multiple ancestry was added in addition to single ancestry. What is the difference between both and how did this impact Indigenous populations in Canada?

Single ancestry refers to one’s direct background, multiple looks back into a person’s ancestors for ethic identification. Altogether 1,103 thousand Canadians reported they were of Aboriginal ancestry, of whom 477.6 thousand clamed single ancestry and 624.3 multiple ancestry.

500

What is the meaning of ‘Metis’ peoples and how this does meaning impact their Indigenous identity?

Metis can have the meaning of either mixed or hybrid. Describing the mixed heritage of Indigenous ancestry with European or French. Mostly due to marriages between Aboriginal women and fur traders in times of colonization. Metis Peoples do not hold the same legal status as Status Indians in Canada.

Present

100

What are two of the main issues faced for Indigenous populations in Canada today?

One main issue is with wide territorial dispersion. Having isolated, single or clusters of Indigenous settlements spread over the vastness of Canada gives difficultly with strong political links as well as making it difficult to work as a cohesive institutional superstructure.

200

Why are Indigenous reserves so important to Indigenous culture in present day?

Although in history reservations may have been a part of forced tool, now a days they can be a strong hold for Indigenous culture; a place where geography, biology and culture meet to preserve and carry on Indigenous culture, language and traditional learning.

300

What was the new question asked in the 1996 consensus and continues in 2001 and 2006 in order to more narrowly focus on Canadian First Nations?

A change from identity based on ancestry to identity based recognition. The question asked Canadians whether or not they consider themselves to be to Aboriginal (Indian, Inuit or Metis). This question was used to determine whether or not individuals feel an allegiance or association with Indigenous culture rather than just bloodlines. The numbers after this change were smaller with only 70 percent of people with Indigenous ancestry considering themselves to be Aboriginal.

400

What are a few reasons why using the information from the Canadian government on Aboriginal Peoples might not be a valid way to understand the Indigenous population and demographic of Canada?

Information is used under the guidelines by the Canadian constitution which broadly identifies numerous Indigenous groups under 3 categories; Indian, Inuit, and Metis. In addition, the definition of an Aboriginal person is constantly changing in legal terms. The situational based character can make it difficult to understand stability of the records.

500

Name a present or past organization that helped or is in the process of helping North American Indigenous peoples to engage in the process of cultural revitalization and to make their presence known in the world?

- Sisters in Spirit - Peterborough Friendship Centre - Toronto Friendship Centre - Poundmaker’s Lodge