Human Nature/Personhood/Self & Other
What is the difference between individuality and universality in human nature?
Individuality refers to traits that make a person unique; universality refers to traits shared by all humans.
What is the mind-body problem?
The issue of how mental states relate to physical brain states.
What is personal identity?
The concept of what makes a person the same over time.
What is a moral principle?
A basic rule or norm guiding right action.
What is the purpose of the state, according to social contract theory?
To protect rights and maintain order by mutual agreement (Hobbes, Locke, Rousseau).
Name and briefly describe one aspect of personhood.
Example: Moral responsibility—the capacity to be held accountable for one’s actions.
Explain the problem of other minds.
It questions how we can be sure other minds exist since we only observe behavior.
What is existential angst?
A feeling of dread or anxiety in the face of radical freedom and responsibility (from existentialist philosophy).
What does it mean for a theory to be deontological?
A deontological theory judges morality by adherence to duty or rules, not outcomes.
What is positive liberty?
Freedom to realize one's potential and act in alignment with rational self-governance.
What does the nature vs. nurture debate attempt to explain?
Whether traits (like aggression or empathy) are innate (biological) or learned (environmental).
How does Descartes' “Cogito” relate to consciousness?
Descartes’ “I think, therefore I am” ties self-awareness directly to consciousness.
Explain one issue in cultural identity.
Cultural identity can be fluid, overlapping, or even in conflict with personal or imposed identities.
Compare moral relativism and moral objectivism.
Moral relativism claims values are culturally dependent; objectivism claims some values are universal.
Compare distributive justice and retributive justice.
Distributive justice is about fair allocation; retributive is about punishment for wrongdoing.
What is solipsism, and why is it a philosophical problem?
Solipsism is the idea that only one's mind is certain to exist, which challenges intersubjectivity and knowledge of others.
How might a dualist and a physicalist disagree about consciousness?
Dualists believe the mind is separate from the body; physicalists think consciousness arises entirely from brain activity.
How do existentialist thinkers understand the relationship between freedom and personal identity?
Existentialists argue that personal identity is not fixed but created through free choices. Authenticity arises when individuals acknowledge their radical freedom and take responsibility for defining themselves, rather than conforming to social roles or expectations.
How do virtue ethics differ from utilitarianism?
Virtue ethics focuses on character; utilitarianism focuses on maximizing happiness.
What’s the difference between natural rights and legal rights?
Natural rights are thought to exist inherently; legal rights are granted by legal systems.
Imagine a person raised in total isolation. What could this thought experiment tell us about the self?
It raises questions about how much of the self is social or relational versus innate or self-generated.
Describe a philosophical zombie and its implications for theories of mind.
A philosophical zombie behaves like a human but lacks consciousness—used to challenge physicalist accounts of mind.
Apply the idea of authenticity to a person in a socially conditioned role.
A person shaped by societal roles (e.g., gender norms) may struggle to act authentically unless they reflect critically and choose freely.
Evaluate whether moral responsibility requires freedom.
If actions are determined, can we truly be held morally accountable?
Analyze the balance between freedom and equality in a democratic society.
A democratic society must find ways to protect freedoms while ensuring equality—tensions arise in policy and governance.