SOCIAL
In the study by Piliavin et al. (subway Samaritans), the number of times ill and drunk victims were helped was counted.
State how the independent variable was operationalised in this part of the study.
1 mark for naming or identifying victim type/ill and drunk 1 mark for operationalisation e.g. cane and bottle For example: • ill and drunk/victim type; (1) • operationalisation e.g. cane and bottle/something in a bag; (1) Note: If only one level of the IV is operationalised, max 1, e.g. ‘The sick man carried a cane’
Describe the differences between a field experiment and a natural experiment, using any examples.
1 mark for each definition, for each type of experiment (maximum of 2 marks in total). 1 mark for each difference. 1 mark for each example that is linked to one type of experiment (maximum of 2 marks in total). Examples can include examples from studies using such experiments, or of ways they could be used. Definition: a field experiment has a manipulated IV and a measured DV and happens in the normal environment for the activity being investigated; (1 for basic definition) Definition: a natural experiment has an IV which occurs spontaneously and a measured DV and often happens in the normal environment for the activity being investigated; (1 for basic definition) Difference: so in field experiments the experimenter deliberately alters the DV Example: like Piliavin et al. did by changing the stooge (victim) Difference: whereas in natural experiments the IV just happens (so the researcher has to use existing differences in variables rather than deliberately changing them Example: e.g. instead of Bandura et al. manipulating an aggressive stooge, they could have compared children in violent and in non-violent settings. Difference: so natural experiments might be more ethical because there is no deliberate interference with the participants’ existence
RESEARCH METHODS Counterbalancing is often used as a control procedure against order effects in a repeated measures design when participants encounter both levels of the IV. Here it is used to control for potential order effects caused by the two different measures of recall (the DV).
Milgram conducted many studies. One investigated whether the prestigious location (Yale University) affected obedience. He used the experimental method to compare the obedience in the original study at the university with the same study carried out in an old office block.
Write an operationalised directional hypothesis for this experiment
1 mark for a correct directional hypothesis that is not operationalised. 2 marks for a correct directional hypothesis that is operationalised. For example: • There will be more obedience in the study at Yale than in the rundown office. (1) • More participants will reach 300 V / 450 V in the study at Yale than in the office. (2)
The study of Saavedra and Silverman (button phobia) was a case study.
Suggest one disadvantage of using a case study.
Both marks are for one disadvantage. Points may be linked but do not have to be. • one person is studied and they may be rare/unique/unusual = 1 mark • so researchers are less likely to be able to generalise to the wider population / less representative = 2nd mark • reliability may be a problem because the researcher may be subjective and vary their interpretation = 2 marks • the researcher may be get to know the participant well (making their interpretation / data collection) subjective = 1st mark • which would make the data invalid = 2nd mark
In Andrade's Study what results indicated the presence of Demand Characterstics
RESEARCH METHODS Three doodlers and four controls suspected a memory test. This suggests that there were demand characteristics that made the aim apparent to the participants. However, none said they actively tried to remember information.
In the study by Yamamoto et al. (chimpanzee helping), the researchers needed a reliable procedure for testing the tool choice made by the chimpanzees. (a) Explain what is meant by ‘reliability’, using this study as an example.
1 mark for definition 1 mark for linked example • reliability is about consistency = 1 mark • to be reliable, measures must measure the phenomenon in the same way each time = 1 mark e.g. Yamatoto et al standardised the procedure, e.g. by always having the same 7 objects on the tray (as tools) at the start of a trial / trial always ended after 5 min if not appropriate tool transfer / maximum of 4, minimum of 2 trials per day / had 3 video cameras / only counted the first tool offered etc. = 1 mark for example They made sure researchers measured helping in a similar way, i.e. were reliable, by using the same rules such as only counting the first tool offered = 2 marks
In Bandura's Study what is meant by Matched Pair Design
Matched participants design: the participants were divided into threes, all with very similar initial aggression levels. One of each of these individuals was placed into each of the three diff erent conditions of model type (aggressive or non-aggressive model and control).
Is Baron-Cohen's study a Quasi Experiment?
quasi-experiment: quasi means ‘almost’, and refers to the fact that these experiments oft en have lots of control over the procedure, but not over how participants are allocated to conditions within the study
In a study about sharing, pairs of friends were given questionnaires. The questionnaire had only two questions: ‘rate your own willingness to share’ and ‘rate your friend’s willingness to share’.
Describe one way in which demand characteristics could be avoided in this study
1 mark for linked description of way to avoid demand characteristics Ensure participants do not know that willingness to share is the aim of the study; Hide the questions about sharing among others (to distract the participant / to disguise the aim); Add filler questions (to questionnaire); Deceive them by telling them it’s a study about what makes a good friend
Describe the control group in Bandura's study
The non-aggressive model group might appear to be a control group because the key factor of ‘aggression’ is missing. However, the important aspect is the presence of a model – and there is one here. So the real control group is where the IV is absent, i.e. where there is no model at all.
What is a pilot study (B-C)
A pilot study is used to check the validity and reliability of the procedures. It is not a check of whether the study is going to ‘work’ (although pilot studies might be conducted to fi nd out whether a question is worth investigating). When you have fi nished reading the procedure for this study, decide why the pilot study was important.
Describe one similarity and one difference between observations and self reports, using any examples.
Similarities • Observations and self reports can both use participants who are aware that they are being studied (1) • for example in Dement and Kleitman / Milgram the participants knew they were being watched and knew they were being asked questions (1 for example) • Observations and self reports can both collect data about behaviours (1) Differences • Only observations can use participants who are unaware that they are being studied (1) • for example in Bandura et al. / Piliavin et al. the participants were unaware that they were being observed (1) • but would have known if they were being asked questions (in a self report) (1) • for example the boy with the button phobia knew he was being observed in Milgram the participants knew they were being watched (1 for example) • Only self reports can both collect data about emotions (1) • because emotions/beliefs cannot be directly observed (as they are ‘internal’) (1 for detail)
Saavedra and Silverman studied a boy with a phobia of buttons and measured his distress using a ‘feelings thermometer’.
Name the type of data produced by the feelings thermometer. How did the feelings thermometer measure distress? Suggest one disadvantage of using the feelings thermometer to measure distress.
1 mark for quantitative
scale (of 0–9); rating;
Both marks for one disadvantage. Points may be linked but do not have to be (this is in the question). Expression of distress is limited to a number on a scale = 1 mark so it might not have captured how the boy in the study felt = 1 mark this would lower validity = 1 mark (only as elaboration) it might be subjective (0 marks) it might be subjective because another child might interpret the scale differently (2 marks)
Questionnaires can contain different types of questions. What kind of questions are possible, give examples
Open/Closed