Road to the Revolution
Founding Documents
Creating the Constitution
Creating the Constitution pt. 2
Foreign Affairs
Movement in the Early Republic
Washington's Presidency
100
How did the outcome of the French and Indian War alter Britain’s relationship with its North American colonies?
Territorial Changes:
Britain gained vast new territories from France (Canada and land east of the Mississippi), greatly expanding its empire in North America.
Economic Consequences:
The war left Britain deeply in debt, leading Parliament to seek new tax revenues from the colonies (e.g., Sugar Act, Stamp Act).
Shift in Policy:
Britain ended its long period of “salutary neglect” and began enforcing stricter control over colonial trade and taxes.
Colonial Reaction:
Colonists resented new taxes and restrictions, arguing “no taxation without representation.”
Growing tension and distrust replaced earlier loyalty to Britain.
Overall Impact:
The war marked a turning point, transforming the relationship from loose cooperation to direct control, setting the stage for the American Revolution.
100
What Enlightenment principle most directly influenced the Declaration of Independence’s argument for breaking away from Britain?
The belief in natural rights—that all people are born with rights to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness (inspired by John Locke’s idea of life, liberty, and property).
Government’s legitimacy comes from the consent of the governed, and people have the right to alter or abolish a government that violates those rights.
100
What was the primary disagreement between large and small states at the Constitutional Convention, and how was it resolved?
(Representation; the Great Compromise created a bicameral legislature with equal representation in the Senate and population-based representation in the House.)
100
What is the purpose of checks and balances, and provide one example from the U.S. government.
Purpose: To prevent any one branch of government from becoming too powerful and to ensure separation of powers works effectively.
Encourages accountability and cooperation among the branches.
Example: The President can veto a bill passed by Congress, but Congress can override the veto with a two-thirds vote in both houses.
Other examples include the Supreme Court declaring laws unconstitutional or the Senate confirming presidential appointments.
100
Why did Washington issue the Proclamation of Neutrality in 1793?
To keep the United States out of war between Britain and France following the French Revolution.
The young nation was militarily and economically weak and could not afford another conflict.
Washington believed the U.S. should focus on internal stability and growth rather than foreign alliances.
Reflected his desire to maintain neutral trade relations with both nations.
Set a precedent for avoiding entangling alliances, later reinforced in his Farewell Address.
100
This was enacted under the Articles of Confederation and provided a mechanism for migration, settlement, and statehood.
Northwest Ordinance
100
How many terms did Washington serve as President?
Two
200
Why did colonists view the Stamp Act as a threat to their liberties even though taxes were relatively small?
The principle, not the amount, angered colonists — they believed only their own elected assemblies had the right to tax them.
The Stamp Act was a direct (internal) tax on goods and documents within the colonies, unlike earlier external trade duties.
Colonists saw it as a violation of their rights as English citizens — “no taxation without representation.”
It set a dangerous precedent for Parliament to tax the colonies without their consent.
Many feared it would lead to greater government control and loss of self-governance in local affairs.
200
How did the Articles of Confederation reflect American fears of centralized authority after independence?
Created a weak national government with most power held by the states.
No executive branch or national leader — to avoid another king-like figure.
No power to tax or regulate interstate and foreign trade — preventing centralized economic control.
Each state had one vote in Congress regardless of size, protecting state sovereignty.
Amendments required unanimous approval, making national action difficult.
Reflected the desire to preserve liberty and prevent the kind of tyranny experienced under British rule.
200
How did the 3/5 Compromise address the issue of slavery and representation in Congress?
Determined that each enslaved person would count as three-fifths of a person for both taxation and representation purposes.
Gave Southern states more representation in the House of Representatives than if enslaved people hadn’t been counted at all.
Satisfied Northern states by preventing enslaved people from being fully counted, which would have given the South too much political power.
Reflected the deep division over slavery and the willingness to compromise to secure ratification of the Constitution.
200
Define strict vs loose interpretation of the Constitution and provide a specific conflict that arose due to these differences.
Strict interpretation:
The federal government can only do what the Constitution explicitly states.
Favored by Thomas Jefferson and the Democratic-Republicans.
Emphasized states’ rights and limited federal power.
Loose interpretation:
The federal government can take actions that are not expressly forbidden by the Constitution if they are “necessary and proper.”
Favored by Alexander Hamilton and the Federalists.
Supported a stronger, more flexible federal government.
Example conflict:
The debate over Hamilton’s proposal for a National Bank (1791) — Hamilton argued it was justified under implied powers, while Jefferson claimed it was unconstitutional because the Constitution did not explicitly authorize it.
200
What were the main provisions of Jay’s Treaty, and how did it reveal domestic divisions over foreign policy?
Main Provisions:
Britain agreed to withdraw troops from forts in the Northwest Territory.
The U.S. agreed to repay pre-Revolutionary War debts owed to British merchants.
Britain granted limited trade rights to American ships in the Caribbean.
The treaty did not address British impressment of American sailors or interference with U.S. trade.
Domestic Divisions:
Federalists (led by Hamilton) supported the treaty as a way to maintain peace and protect trade with Britain.
Democratic-Republicans (led by Jefferson) opposed it, viewing it as pro-British and a betrayal of revolutionary ideals and U.S. support for France.
The controversy revealed growing partisan divisions and deep disagreements over the direction of U.S. foreign policy.
200
How did westward migration lead to conflict with Native Americans, and what were some examples of Native resistance in the 1790s?
(As settlers pushed into the Ohio River Valley, conflicts like the Battle of Fallen Timbers (1794) arose; Native confederations led by leaders such as Little Turtle resisted U.S. expansion until defeat led to the Treaty of Greenville (1795).)
200
Compare the government's response to Shay's Rebellion and the Whisky Rebellion
Shays’ Rebellion (1786–1787):
Under the Articles of Confederation, the federal government was too weak to respond effectively.
The rebellion was put down by a state militia (Massachusetts), not the national government.
Highlighted the need for a stronger central government, leading to the Constitutional Convention.
Whiskey Rebellion (1794):
Under the new Constitution, President George Washington led federal troops to suppress the uprising in western Pennsylvania.
Demonstrated the strength and authority of the new federal government.
Showed that the Constitution allowed the government to maintain law and order and enforce federal laws.
Comparison Summary:
Shays’ Rebellion exposed federal weakness, while the Whiskey Rebellion showed federal strength and legitimacy under the new Constitution.
300
According to Common Sense, what made continued allegiance to the British Crown illogical for the colonies?
Monarchy was corrupt and unnatural, giving power by birth rather than merit.
It was illogical for a large continent (America) to be ruled by a small, distant island (Britain).
Britain’s interests were self-serving, often dragging the colonies into European conflicts.
The Crown had violated colonists’ natural rights and acted as a tyrant through oppressive laws and taxes.
Common Sense argued that independence was common sense — the colonies no longer needed Britain for protection or prosperity.
300
In what specific ways (at least two) did the Constitution strengthen the federal government compared to the Articles of Confederation?
Created three branches of government — executive, legislative, and judicial — providing centralized leadership and checks and balances.
Gave Congress the power to tax and raise revenue, ensuring the federal government could fund itself.
Allowed Congress to regulate interstate and foreign commerce, creating a unified national economy.
Established a federal court system to enforce laws and settle disputes between states.
Gave the federal government authority over the military, ensuring national defense rather than reliance on state militias.
300
What were the main differences between Federalists and Anti-Federalists regarding the new Constitution?
(Federalists supported a strong central government and ratification; Anti-Federalists feared tyranny and demanded protections for individual rights.)
300
In what two ways did Enlightenment ideas influence the framework of the Constitution?
Montesquieu’s separation of powers, Locke’s natural rights and consent of the governed, and Rousseau’s concept of social contract all influenced the framers’ design of a limited, representative government.
300
How did Pinckney’s Treaty with Spain represent a diplomatic success for the early republic?
Signed in 1795 between the United States and Spain (also called the Treaty of San Lorenzo).
Granted Americans the right to navigate the Mississippi River, which was vital for western farmers’ trade.
Allowed Americans to use the port of New Orleans for duty-free storage and shipment of goods (“right of deposit”).
Established the northern boundary of Florida at the 31st parallel, reducing tensions with Spain.
Strengthened U.S. control and unity in the western territories, boosting confidence in the federal government’s diplomacy.
Seen as a major foreign policy achievement of Washington’s presidency, increasing national pride and stability.
300
How did the invention of the cotton gin in 1793 influence patterns of migration and settlement in the southern United States?
The cotton gin made cotton production far more profitable, leading to westward expansion of plantation agriculture into areas like Alabama and Mississippi. This drove forced migration of enslaved people and white settlers into new territories, spreading slavery and transforming the Southern economy and settlement patterns.
300
How did conflicts within Washington’s Cabinet contribute to the formation of the first political parties?
Disagreements between Alexander Hamilton (favoring a strong central government and a national bank) and Thomas Jefferson (favoring states’ rights and an agrarian republic) led to the rise of the Federalists and Democratic-Republicans, marking the beginning of the U.S. two-party system.
400
a. Briefly explain how ONE specific historical event or development contributed to the changes in land claims depicted in the map.
b. Briefly explaine ONE specific effect of the changes in land claims depicted in the map in the period from 1763 to 1775
Examples of responses to (a) that would earn the point include:
France and Spain ceded territory to Great Britain at the end of the Seven Years War (French and Indian War).
European imperial powers engaged in warfare for dominance in North America.
Examples of responses to (b) that would earn the point include:
Specific tensions between Native Americans and colonists that occurred between 1763 and 1775 (e.g., Pontiac’s Rebellion).
French and Native American trade networks and diplomatic relations were disrupted.
British colonists, the government in Great Britain, and imperial officials in North American came into conflict due to British policies related to newly acquired territory (e.g., Proclamation of 1763, Quebec Act).
Native Americans lost the ability to play European imperial powers off of each other in North America; they attempted to remain neutral during the imperial crisis.
British colonists began to assert distinct provincial and/or American identities.
Cultural mixing amongst European Americans occurred as European territorial claims changed in North America (e.g., Cajun population in Louisiana).
Western population movements and changes in European imperial policy disrupted Native American cultures.
400
Briefly explain how ONE specific historical development represents an accomplishment of the national government under the Articles of Confederation.
Briefly explain ONE specific argument critics used in the 1780s to support revising the Articles of Confederation.
Examples of responses to (a) that would earn the point:
The Articles created a confederation government for the former British colonies after declaring independence from the crown.
The Articles prevented states from forming their own republics.
The Articles allowed states to maintain the governments and elected bodies they had already formed.
The national government coordinated the actions of the new states in the former British colonies, especially defense.
The national government passed Northwest Ordinances in 1785 and 1787, establishing orderly procedures for settling the Northwest Territory and admitting new states from it.
Examples of responses to (b) that would earn the point:
The national government under the Articles of Confederation was weak and often unable to conduct routine business.
The national government had no authority to tax directly. Instead states had the authority to tax.
The national government had no authority to regulate interstate commerce.
Money lost value because both state and national governments had the power to coin money and many states wantonly printed debt instruments.
Some states wanted independence from the Confederation.
Some leaders called for stronger national government, a stronger executive office, and/or a Constitutional Convention.
Shays’ Rebellion demonstrated the weaknesses of the government.
The government under the Articles lacked a national court system.
400
Prompt:
(a) Briefly explain ONE way the delegates at the Constitutional Convention sought to limit the power of the national government.
(b) Briefly explain ONE way the delegates sought to prevent excessive power from accumulating in any single branch of government.
(a) Limiting national power:
Federalism divided power between national and state governments.
Enumerated powers limited Congress to specific responsibilities.
The Tenth Amendment reserved unlisted powers to the states (added later as part of the ratification compromise).
(b) Preventing concentration of power:
Created checks and balances (e.g., presidential veto, congressional override, judicial review emerging later).
Established separation of powers among legislative, executive, and judicial branches.
Required bicameral legislature to make lawmaking more deliberate and balanced between large and small states.
400
(a) Briefly explain ONE foreign policy challenge the United States faced during Washington’s or Adams’s presidency.
(b) Briefly explain ONE way that challenge increased political divisions within the United States.
(a) Foreign policy challenges:
Jay’s Treaty (1794): Britain continued seizing U.S. ships and occupying forts in the Northwest; treaty sought to avoid war but angered France.
XYZ Affair (1797): French officials demanded bribes from American diplomats, sparking calls for war (“Quasi-War” with France).
Neutrality issues: Ongoing British–French conflict forced the U.S. to decide between maintaining neutrality or supporting its former ally.
(b) Political divisions created:
Jay’s Treaty led to Federalist support (favoring peace with Britain) vs. Democratic-Republican opposition (sympathy with France).
XYZ Affair fueled anti-French sentiment and passage of Alien and Sedition Acts, deepening the split between Federalists and Democratic-Republicans.
Conflicts over neutrality sharpened debates about executive power and foreign influence in domestic politics.
400
How did patterns of migration and settlement in the early republic contribute to sectional tensions between North and South?
Westward expansion brought up repeated debates over whether new territories should permit slavery.
Northern settlers tended to establish free-labor farming economies, while Southern settlers sought to expand plantation slavery westward.
The Northwest Ordinance (1787) banned slavery in the Northwest Territory, setting an early sectional boundary between free and slave regions.
As settlers moved west, the balance of free vs. slave states in Congress became a central political issue.
Economic and cultural differences—industrial and commercial North vs. agricultural, slaveholding South—deepened as regions developed along separate paths.
These tensions over land, labor, and political power laid the groundwork for later conflicts such as the Missouri Compromise and ultimately the Civil War.
400
Analyze the extent to which debates over foreign policy contributed to the differences between the Federalist and Democratic Republican parties between 1789 and 1800.
Extent:
Foreign policy debates were a major factor in shaping early political divisions and solidifying the two-party system.
Federalist View (Hamilton, Adams, Washington):
Favored close ties with Britain for trade and stability.
Supported Jay’s Treaty (1794) to maintain peace and protect U.S. commerce.
Distrusted the French Revolution, viewing it as violent and destabilizing.
Wanted a strong central government to handle international affairs effectively.
Democratic-Republican View (Jefferson, Madison):
Sympathized with France as a fellow republic fighting monarchy.
Opposed Jay’s Treaty, seeing it as pro-British and a betrayal of revolutionary ideals.
Criticized Federalist foreign policy as elitist and un-republican.
Favored states’ rights and feared foreign entanglements that empowered the federal government.
Result:
Conflicts over neutrality, treaties, and the French Revolution deepened ideological divides.
By 1800, these foreign policy debates had crystallized the Federalist and Democratic-Republican parties, defining their platforms and voter bases.
500
“As to the history of the revolution, my ideas may be peculiar, perhaps singular. What do we mean by the revolution? The war? That was no part of the revolution; it was only an effect and consequence of it. The revolution was in the minds of the people, and this was effected from 1760 to 1775, in the course of fifteen years, before a drop of blood was shed at Lexington.”
Former president John Adams to former president Thomas Jefferson, August 1815
“There is nothing more common than to confound the terms of the American Revolution with those of the late American war. The American war is over: but this is far from being the case with the American Revolution. On the contrary, nothing but the first act of the great drama is closed. It remains yet to establish and perfect our new forms of government; and to prepare the principles, morals, and manners of our citizens, for these forms of government, after they are established and brought to perfection.”
Benjamin Rush, signer of the Declaration of Independence and delegate
to the Continental Congress, January 1787
Question
Directions: Read the question carefully. Use complete sentences; an outline or bulleted list alone is not acceptable.
Using the excerpts, answer (a), (b), and (c).
Briefly describe ONE significant difference between Adams’ understanding and Rush’s understanding of the American Revolution.
Briefly explain how ONE specific historical event or development from the period between 1760 and 1800 could be used to support Adams’ interpretation.
Briefly explain how ONE specific historical event or development from the period between 1760 and 1800 could be used to support Rush’s interpretation.
🅐 Difference between Adams and Rush
Adams: Saw the Revolution as a change in the minds and attitudes of the colonists before the war — an intellectual and ideological revolution between 1760–1775.
Rush: Saw the Revolution as an ongoing process after the war — about building a republican government and virtuous citizenry that would sustain independence.
In short: Adams = ideological awakening before the war; Rush = political and moral transformation after the war.
🅑 Event supporting Adams’ interpretation
Stamp Act crisis (1765): Sparked widespread protests and arguments about rights, taxation, and representation — evidence of the revolution “in the minds of the people.”
Townshend Duties resistance (1767–1770): Boycotts and formation of Committees of Correspondence show ideological unity forming before fighting began.
First Continental Congress (1774): Colonies coordinated politically for the first time, showing mental and political shift toward independence.
(Any of these support Adams’ idea that the true revolution happened before bloodshed.)
🅒 Event supporting Rush’s interpretation
Articles of Confederation (ratified 1781): Early attempt to create new government structures — part of the “unfinished revolution.”
Constitutional Convention (1787): Continued effort to “perfect” the revolution by creating a stronger federal system.
Debates over slavery, women’s roles, and civic virtue: Show ongoing struggle to align “principles, morals, and manners” with republican ideals.
(Any of these support Rush’s idea that the Revolution was incomplete after the war and required building a new political and moral order.)
500
“The members of the Philadelphia convention which drafted the Constitution were, with a few exceptions, immediately, directly, and personally interested in, and derived economic advantages from, the establishment of the new system. The Constitution was essentially an economic document based upon the concept that the fundamental private rights of property are [superior] to government and morally beyond the reach of popular majorities.”
Charles Beard, historian, An Economic Interpretation of the Constitution of the United States, 1913
“Anxious and uncertain, the convention delegates . . . brought to bear their political experience, their sensitivities to legal loopholes, their commitment to representative government, and they focused their energies and attentions on resolving existing conflicts, correcting existing errors, and protecting . . . against a descent into tyranny. When they were done, they submitted their handiwork to the citizens for ratification rather than attempting to impose it by assassination or military force. In this way, they invited their neighbors to share responsibility for the fate of their experiment in representative government.”
Carol Berkin, historian, A Brilliant Solution: Inventing the American Constitution, 2002
Question
Using the excerpts, answer (a), (b), and (c).
(a) Briefly describe ONE major difference between Beard’s and Berkin’s historical interpretations of the drafting of the United States Constitution.
(b) Briefly explain how ONE specific historical event, development, or circumstance in the period 1776–1800 that is not directly mentioned in the excerpts could be used to support Beard’s interpretation.
(c) Briefly explain how ONE specific historical event, development, or circumstance in the period 1776–1800 that is not directly mentioned in the excerpts could be used to support Berkin’s interpretation.
Task A: Describes a major difference between Beard’s and Berkin’s historical interpretations of the drafting of the United States Constitution
NOTE: Credited responses for (a) must explicitly address the substance of both excerpts.
Some examples that would earn credit include:
· Beard argues that the Constitutional Convention was political, self-interested, undemocratic, self-dealing, largely motivated by financial interests and the goal of stability, while Berkin argues that the Constitutional Convention was comprised of a practical set of men who were virtuous, prudent, and motivated by republican or democratic principles with an eye to the future.
· Beard argues that the Constitution was designed to protect the property of elite, White men, while Berkin presents the Constitution as being more democratic.
Explains how a specific historical event, development, or circumstance in the period 1776–1800 that is not directly mentioned in the excerpts could be used to support Beard’s interpretation
NOTE: Responses must specifically explain how the events represent evidence that can support the author’s claim.
Some examples that would earn credit, with appropriate elaboration, include:
· Elements of indirect democracy in the Constitution (e.g., the electoral college, limits on suffrage, the selection of senators by state legislatures) serve as evidence that the Constitution was designed to thwart popular will.
· The expansion of executive and judicial power under the Constitution show the increasing power of the federal government at the expense of the states.
· The Constitution was an economic document based on protecting private property as evidenced by the financial interests of particular members of the constitutional convention.
· Elements of Alexander Hamilton’s financial plans (e.g., assumption of state debts, support for industry and manufacturing, the creation of a national bank) show that the Constitution was an economic document based on private property.
· Mostly white wealthy white men were at the constitutional convention and the Constitution was designed to serve their interests; radicals were not present.
· The Constitution was less democratic than the constitutions of many states (e.g., Pennsylvania).
· The Three-Fifths Compromise and other provisions of the Constitution were designed to protect the economic interests of slaveholders.
· The trans-Atlantic slave trade was extended for 20 years in the Constitution.
· Federalists and other leading supporters of the Constitution later used the federal government to implement policies that were unpopular or disproportionately benefited wealthy Americans (e.g., Hamilton’s financial program, Whiskey Rebellion).
· Leading supporters of the Constitution took power over the money supply away from states and gave it to the federal government in order to undercut state economic policies, such as relief on debt or printing paper money that helped debtors and hurt wealthy creditors.
· The Revolutionary War was partially an elitist movement for the protection of property rights by the framers of the Constitution.
· The Alien and Sedition Acts exhibited control over the actions of others by the government.
Task C: Explains how a specific historical event, development, or circumstance in the period 1776–1800 that is not directly mentioned in the excerpts could be used to support Berkin’s interpretation
NOTE: Responses must specifically explain how the events represent evidence that can support the author’s claim.
Some examples that would earn credit, with appropriate elaboration, include:
· Compromises built into the Constitution (e.g., creating a two-house legislation with both proportional and state representation, establishing checks and balances between the three branches of government, avoiding the issue of slavery) show that the Constitutional Convention focused on “resolving existing conflicts, correcting existing errors, and protecting . . . against a descent into tyranny.”
· The Constitution departed from the Articles of Confederation (e.g., allowing direct federal taxation, creating a clear executive) as examples of “correcting existing errors.”
· State ratification conventions as evidence that the convention delegates sought to gain popular support for the Constitution.
· State ratification conventions were used to gain popular assent to the Constitution.
(More on AP Classroom)
500
Excerpt 1:
“The framers of the Constitution represented the propertied classes who feared the social disorder and economic radicalism unleashed by the Revolution. Their work in Philadelphia was not an act of pure statesmanship but a deliberate effort to contain democracy and preserve the privileges of wealth and order. The resulting government reflected the framers’ deep suspicion of popular rule.”
—Howard Zinn, A People’s History of the United States, 1980
Excerpt 2:
“The delegates at Philadelphia were not aristocrats plotting against democracy but pragmatic reformers who recognized the weaknesses of the Confederation and sought a workable balance between liberty and order. They argued, compromised, and designed a system that could adapt over time—a remarkable achievement of political collaboration.”
—Gordon S. Wood, The Creation of the American Republic, 1969
Question:
Using the excerpts, answer (a), (b), and (c).
(a) Briefly describe ONE major difference between Zinn’s and Wood’s interpretations of the motivations of the delegates at the Constitutional Convention.
(b) Briefly explain how ONE specific historical event, development, or circumstance in the period 1780–1800 that is not directly mentioned in the excerpts could be used to support Zinn’s interpretation.
(c) Briefly explain how ONE specific historical event, development, or circumstance in the period 1780–1800 that is not directly mentioned in the excerpts could be used to support Wood’s interpretation.
(a) ONE major difference between Zinn’s and Wood’s interpretations
Zinn argues the delegates were elitist and motivated by class interests, seeking to restrain democracy and protect property.
Wood argues the delegates were pragmatic reformers, motivated by a desire for stability and effective government rather than self-interest.
Main difference: Zinn sees the Constitution as a tool for elite control; Wood sees it as a product of compromise and political innovation.
(b) ONE historical event/development (1780–1800) supporting Zinn’s interpretation
Shays’ Rebellion (1786–87): Elite leaders saw the rebellion as a threat to property and order, motivating them to strengthen central authority.
Constitution’s limits on direct democracy: Indirect election of senators and the Electoral College reflected distrust of popular rule.
Voting restrictions: Property and gender limits on suffrage show how democracy was restricted to propertied men.
(c) ONE historical event/development (1780–1800) supporting Wood’s interpretation
Weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation: Economic chaos, lack of federal power, and inability to tax prompted delegates to design a stronger system.
The Great Compromise and 3/5 Compromise: Showed practical efforts to balance interests and maintain unity, not purely class motives.
Ratification debates and Federalist Papers: Emphasized need for checks and balances and a government based on consent to prevent tyranny.
500
MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS
Questions 1–3 refer to the following excerpt:
“It is not denied that there are implied [existing but not clearly stated] as well as express [clearly stated] powers, and that the former are as effectually delegated as the latter.
It is conceded that implied powers are to be considered as delegated equally with express ones. Then it follows, that as a power of erecting a corporation (such as a bank) may as well be implied as any other thing, it may as well be employed as an instrument or means of carrying into execution any of the specified powers. … But one may be erected in relation to the trade with foreign countries, or to the trade between the States … because it is the province of the federal government to regulate those objects, and because it is incident to a general sovereign or legislative power to regulate a thing, to employ all the means which relate to its regulation to the best and greatest advantage.”
—Alexander Hamilton, Letter on the National Bank, 1791
1. Hamilton’s constitutional argument was based on which of the following types of powers?
(A) Employed
(B) Expressed
(C) Implied
(D) Regulated
2. Hamilton’s position expressed in the excerpt most clearly reflected his dissatisfaction with which of the following?
(A) The Declaration of Independence
(B) The Articles of Confederation
(C) The Northwest Ordinance
(D) The Bill of Rights
3. Which of the following would best serve as the basis for modifying or refuting Hamilton’s position expressed in the excerpt?
(A) The ideals of the Enlightenment, such as the emphasis on reason
(B) The theory of the separation of powers, which divided power among three branches of government
(C) The purpose of the 10th Amendment, which reserves powers to the states
(D) The writings of Thomas Paine, which supported revolution
1. Hamilton’s constitutional argument was based on which of the following types of powers?
✅ Answer: (C) Implied
Hamilton argued that the Constitution grants implied powers—powers not specifically stated but necessary to carry out expressed ones (like creating a national bank under the “necessary and proper” clause).
2. Hamilton’s position expressed in the excerpt most clearly reflected his dissatisfaction with which of the following?
✅ Answer: (B) The Articles of Confederation
The Articles created a weak central government. Hamilton wanted a stronger, more flexible federal government capable of regulating commerce and finance.
3. Which of the following would best serve as the basis for modifying or refuting Hamilton’s position expressed in the excerpt?
✅ Answer: (C) The purpose of the 10th Amendment, which reserves powers to the states
Opponents like Jefferson and Madison argued that Hamilton’s interpretation gave the federal government too much power, violating the 10th Amendment’s limits.
500
“Sir, suffer me to recall to your mind that time, in which the arms and tyranny of the British crown were exerted. . . .
This, Sir, was a time when you clearly saw into the injustice of a State of slavery . . . that you publicly held forth this true and invaluable doctrine. . . . ‘We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal; that they are endowed by their Creator with certain inalienable rights. . . .’
But, Sir, how pitiable is it to reflect, that although you were so fully convinced of the benevolence of the Father of Mankind, and of his equal and impartial distribution of these rights and privileges, which he hath conferred upon them, that you should at the same time counteract his mercies, in detaining by fraud and violence so numerous a part of my brethren, under groaning captivity, and cruel oppression.”
—Benjamin Banneker, African American scientist and surveyor, letter to Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson, 1792
Using the excerpt, answer (a), (b), and (c).
(a) Briefly explain ONE specific reason for Banneker’s letter to Jefferson.
(b) Briefly explain ONE critic’s response to Banneker’s position.
(c) Briefly explain ONE specific way Thomas Jefferson might have responded to Banneker’s questions about slavery.
(a) One specific reason for Banneker’s letter to Jefferson:
To remind Jefferson of the ideals in the Declaration of Independence (“all men are created equal”) and challenge the hypocrisy of supporting liberty while tolerating slavery.
(b) One critic’s response to Banneker’s position:
Critics, especially pro-slavery southerners, claimed slavery was economically necessary or argued that racial differences justified inequality and continued enslavement.
(c) One specific way Jefferson might have responded to Banneker’s questions about slavery:
Jefferson might have agreed that slavery was morally wrong but argued that immediate emancipation was impractical, supporting gradual emancipation or colonization instead.
500
a. Briefly describe ONE historical factor that contributed to the passage of the Sedition Act of 1798.
b. Briefly describe ONE historical factor that was a result of the passage of the Sedition Act of 1798.
c. Briefly describe ONE historical similarity between reactions to the passage of the Sedition Act of 1798 and reactions to the formation of the Constitutional Convention in 1787.
Responses to (a) that would earn credit:
- A historical factor that led to the passage of the Sedition Act was the barrage of verbal attacks made towards George Washington, John Adams and other political dignitaries as they attempted to diffuse the tempers and political dissent over their anti-French policies. The policies were a direct result of the insulting XYZ Affair where France refused to see American negotiators unless they paid a substantial bribe. The passage of the Sedition Act was made possible by the decisive mid-term election that gave the Federalists the majority in both houses.
Responses to (b) that would earn credit:
- As a result of the passage of the Sedition Act (and other unpopular legislation; the Alien Act and Naturalization Act of 1798), the Federalist party’s popularity dramatically decreased leading to the election of the first Republican president Thomas Jefferson in 1800. The Acts also became fodder for the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions, which condemned the Alien and Sedition Acts in both state legislatures. These resolutions were the first to question the constitutionality of federal laws and threatened to nullify them.
Responses to (c) that would earn credit:
- In reaction to both the proposals at the Constitutional Convention and the Sedition Act, Americans raised concerns about the protection of individual liberties. Anti-federalists opposed the ratification of the Constitution, because they feared the rise of a monarchy that would fail to protect their individual rights. Similarly, opponents of the Sedition Act felt that the law infringed on their freedom of speech. Many believed that existing laws were sufficient and passing the Sedition Act was a ruse to keep the existing party (Federalists) in power by depriving the citizens of information that opposed their current authority.