Motivation
This theory explains behavior as the desire to reduce internal physiological tension and maintain homeostasis.
Drive-Reduction Theory
This theory states that physiological reaction leads to the labeling of an emotion.
What is this theory?
James-Lange Theory
Every time Leo makes a mistake, he feels overwhelming guilt and shame even for small errors. Which part of Freud's personality structure is dominating, and what does Freud say happens when this part takes over completely?
The Superego is dominating.
When the superego takes over, a person becomes guilt-ridden, shy, fearful, and withdrawn.
What is the Facial Feedback Effect? Give one example
Facial muscle movements send signals to the brain that can cause or intensify the emotion being expressed. Example: forcing a smile by holding a pencil in your teeth makes cartoons seem funnier.
What is Self-Efficacy? What does HIGH vs. LOW self-efficacy look like in a student?
Self-efficacy = a person's belief in their own ability to perform behaviors that lead to expected outcomes.
High = confident, persistent, takes on challenges.
Low = doubts ability, becomes anxious, gives up easily.
What is the Yerkes-Dodson Theory of Arousal?
What does it say about basic/general tasks vs. difficult/skill-based tasks?
Yerkes-Dodson states that performance follows an inverted U-curve based on arousal level. Basic/general tasks are completed best with a moderate level of arousal. Difficult/skill-based tasks are completed best with a low-to-moderatelevel of arousal. Too little or too much arousal hurts performance on any task.
What is Cannon-Bard Theory?
Physiological reaction and the emotion are assumed to occur at the same time.
After being passed over for a promotion, an employee starts coming in early, working harder, and volunteering for extra projects.
According to Freud, what defense mechanism is this — and how does it differ from Displacement?
Sublimation — channeling an unacceptable impulse (anger/frustration) into a socially valued behavior (working harder).
Displacement redirects the impulse toward another person or object (e.g., yelling at a coworker). Sublimation is considered the most constructive defense mechanism.
After a tough loss, Coach tells his players to stand tall, chest out, and hold their heads high even though they feel defeated.
What psychological effect is he trying to use and how does it work?
Behavior Feedback Effect.
Bodily movements and posture influence emotions — standing tall with an open posture can boost confidence and reduce stress, even if the emotion wasn't there initially.
Jaylen is normally loud and funny with his friends but quiet and reserved with teachers. His trait theorist says personality is stable — so why does his behavior change? What debate does this illustrate?
The Person-Situation Controversy — the debate over whether it is a person's stable traits OR the specific situation they are in that determines behavior. Jaylen's core traits are stable, but different situations activate different aspects of his personality.
Once basic needs such as food, shelter, and safety are met, a student chooses their own project topic, practices to improve their skills, and works successfully in a group.
Name the theory and the three psychological needs being satisfied.
Self-Determination Theory; autonomy, competence, and relatedness.
Jake gets a shot and is told it has no side effects. His heart starts racing and his hands shake. He's then placed in a room with someone who is visibly furious. Jake starts feeling angry too.
What theory is this?
Schachter-Singer (Two-Factor) Theory
What is Unconditional Positive Regard? Why is it important for personality development?
Unconditional Positive Regard = completely accepting another person without judgment, praise, or criticism.
It is essential because people need total acceptance to grow, align their real and ideal selves, and become fully functioning.
In Japan, an employee who gets a promotion keeps a neutral face and deflects compliments. In the U.S., a promoted employee smiles widely and accepts praise enthusiastically. Both are displaying the same underlying emotion but differently.
What concept explains this difference?
Display Rules. These are culturally expected norms for how and when to express emotions.
Andura proposes that a shy student avoids class discussions (behavior), tells herself "I'm bad at speaking up" (cognition), and then gets placed in a quiet study group by her teacher (environment) — which reinforces her belief.
Name the concept.
Reciprocal Determinism
A person has not eaten all day. As glucose levels drop, they experience physiological tension that directs their behavior toward finding food. After eating, the tension is reduced and internal balance is restored.
Identify the motivational process occurring and the goal it is trying to maintain.
Drive-reduction; maintaining homeostasis.
A person sees a threat.
Theory A says: first the body reacts, then the person feels fear.
Theory B says: emotion and body reaction happen at the same time.
Name the theories
A: James-Lange
B: Cannon-Bard
A psychologist shows a patient 10 symmetrical inkblots and records everything they say. Another shows 31 vague picture cards and asks the patient to tell a story about each.
Name both tests, what type of assessment they are, and what they are designed to reveal.
Rorschach Inkblot Test (inkblots) and Thematic Apperception Test/TAT (picture cards).
Both are projective tests — they use ambiguous stimuli to reveal unconscious thoughts, feelings, and personality patterns through the patient's own projections.
Researchers find that people across completely isolated cultures — with no contact with the outside world — make the same face when told a story about losing a child or about meeting a friend. What does this prove?
It proves that at least six facial expressions are universal and biologically hardwired — not culturally learned.
Carlos believes he is terrible at math and avoids any class or situation that involves numbers. Because he avoids it, he never practices, which makes him worse at math, which confirms his belief that he's terrible at it.
What concept does this illustrate and explain it?
Reciprocal Determinism
Carlos's cognitive belief ("I'm bad at math") influences his behavior (avoiding math), which shapes his environment (no practice, no improvement), which reinforces his original belief.
All three factors — personal/cognitive, behavior, and environment — continuously influence each other in a loop.
Compare intrinsic and extrinsic motivation and identify which is generally associated with better learning and higher quality work.
- Intrinsic motivation: doing an activity for its inherent satisfaction.
- Extrinsic motivation: performing an activity to achieve an external reward or avoid punishment.
- Intrinsic motivation is generally associated with better learning and higher quality work.
You are walking in the woods and hear a loud sound. You instantly feel fear before even thinking. A second later you think "it's probably just the wind" and your fear decreases.
Identify the process that reduced the fear.
Cognitive Appraisal (Lazarus).
Once the sound was interpreted as non-threatening, the emotional response decreased.
Define and give an example of FIVE defense mechanisms.
1. Sublimation: channeling impulses into socially valued behavior (joining cross-country after being cut from soccer).
2. Projection: attributing your own impulses to others (saying "my parent is the one who's mad at the coach").
3. Reaction Formation: switching an impulse to its opposite (pretending not to care about the team you desperately wanted to make).
4. Displacement: redirecting impulses to a safer target (yelling at a sibling after a bad day at school).
5. Rationalization: self-justifying excuses ("I wasn't really trying anyway").
Why do you think humans are so quick to notice when someone looks angry? Use Darwin's evolutionary argument to explain.
Facial expressions evolved before language as a survival tool. Spotting anger fast meant reacting to danger in time — so it got passed down through evolution.
Name all FIVE traits of the Big Five (OCEAN) model. For each: give the full name, describe someone HIGH in that trait.
O — Openness: High = curious, creative, tries new things.
C — Conscientiousness: High = hardworking, organized, dependable.
E — Extroversion: High = outgoing, warm, seeks adventure.
A — Agreeableness: High = helpful, trusting, empathetic.
N — Neuroticism: High = anxious, unhappy, emotionally unstable.