Turing
Explain the notions of computer, representation, and algorithm
A computer is a device that processes representations in a systematic way.
Representation: An item that is about something else, e.g. words, sentences, maps, pictures.
Algorithm: A procedure that can be executed by a Turing machine, involving a finite number of definite instructions.
Explain the distinction between Weak AI and Strong AI
Strong AI: Running the right computer program is sufficient for being intelligent. Weak AI: Computer programs are a powerful tool for formulating and testing hypotheses about the mind.
Explain Block’s distinction between two ways of extrapolating from our own case to identify consciousness in other systems (which we’ve labeled Option 1 and Option 2).
Option 1: Prioritize computational functions. Systems that exhibit the same functional capacities as we do (language, recognition, planning, behavior) are likely to be conscious as well.
Option 2: Prioritize biological substrate. Systems made out of the same physical material as us are likely to be conscious as well.
Explain the distinction between Subjective Facts and Objective Facts
Subjective fact: Fact that can be understood only from a certain point of view. Facts about what it’s like to be you are subjective.
Objective fact: Fact that can be understood from many points of view. Facts about your brain and its functional organization are objective.
Explain Jackson’s example of Fred
Fred sees two colors, red1 and red2, where we see one, red.
Explain the Theological Objection to the Turing Test, and how Turing replies
Only humans can think because God wishes it this way. Reply: God could bestow a soul on a machine if he sees fit. He’s all-powerful,after all.
Draw the Chinese Room thought experiment. Be prepared to explain how this thought experiment supplies an objection to Strong AI.
1. If Strong AI is true, then there is some formal program P such that running P is sufficient for understanding Chinese.
2. I could run P without understanding Chinese (see thought experiment)
3. Therefore, Strong AI is false.
Explain the distinction between role properties and realizer properties, and illustrate the distinction using an example
Role properties: the property of being in some state or other that plays some causal-functional role within a system.
Realizer properties: the lower-level states that actually play those roles in us.
Describe the Subjectivity Argument against Physicalism.
1. All facts about qualia are subjective facts.
2. If a phenomenon is physical, then facts about it can be derived from the natural sciences.
3. All facts derived from the natural sciences are objective facts.
4. No subjective fact is an objective fact.
5. Therefore, no facts about qualia can be derived from the natural sciences.
6. Therefore, qualia are non-physical.
Explain Jackson's example of Mary.
Mary is a brilliant color scientist, born and raised in a black-and-white room. Quaere: Does Mary learn anything new about color vision when she emerges from that room?
Explain the Argument from Consciousness reply to the Turing Test, and how Turing replies
Machines lack subjective experiences: feelings, emotions. Other Minds Reply: If a machine passes the Turing Test, we would have the same evidence that it is conscious as we have that other people are conscious. Thus, we should accept the test.
Explain the Systems reply, and how Searle responds
While the person in the room does not understand Chinese, the system consisting of the person, the rulebook, and the slips of paper understands Chinese. Reply: If the rules are memorized, then the whole system is inside the person. Still, they won’t understand Chinese. Thus, the system doesn’t understand Chinese.
Explain why Block conjectures on evolutionary grounds that electrochemical signaling (rather than purely electric signaling) might be critical to consciousness.
If certain physical properties promoted the evolution of consciousness while others did not, we have reason to favor the former. In fact, while electrical nervous systems have existed for over 600 million years, it seems that no purely electrical system (e.g. comb jellies) has developed consciousness.
Explain how the example of bat echolocation motivates the view that facts about qualia are subjective
“Bat sonar, though clearly a form of perception, is not similar in its operation to any sense that we possess, and there is no reason to suppose that it is subjectively like anything we can experience or imagine.” This motivates the view that facts about phenomenal character can only be grasped from a certain point of view.
Explain Jackson's Knowledge Argument against Physicalism
(1) Mary knows all the physical facts about color vision before leaving the black-and-white room.
(2) Mary does not know all the facts about color vision before leaving the black-and-white room.
(3) Therefore, not all facts about color vision are physical facts.
(4) If Physicalism is true, then all facts are physical facts.
(5) Therefore, physicalism is false.
Explain the Argument from Various Disabilities reply to the Turing Test, and how Turing replies
A machine will never be able to do --- a bunch of things. Reply: This is a bad inductive inference.
Explain the Robot reply, and how Searle responds
The program must be run inside a robot that moves and acts on the world. Reply: Place the Chinese room inside a robot with a video camera, such that Chinese inputs are caused by perceptions. You still wouldn’t understand the meanings of the symbols you’re manipulating.
Explain why Option 1 inspires skepticism about AI consciousness, while Option 2 inspires skepticism about consciousness in simpler biological creatures.
Option 1 inspires skepticism about consciousness in primitive creatures lacking many of our functional capacities but made of similar biological materials.
Option 2 inspires skepticism about consciousness inartificial systems lacking our physical makeup butpossessing many of our functional capacities.
Jackson Surprise!: Describe Epiphenomenalism about qualia, and explain why Jackson believes that even if Epiphenomenalism is true, we nonetheless can gain knowledge about other people’s qualia.
Epiphenomenalism: the qualitative features of mental states (namely, qualia) are causally inefficacious.
Jackson: "I am arguing from one effect [behavior] back to its cause [brain states] and out again to another effect [qualia]. The fact that neither effect [behavior & qualia] causes the other is irrelevant...The epiphenomenalist can argue from the behavior of others to the qualia of others by arguing from the behavior of brains of others and out again to their qualia."
Explain the Ability Hypothesis reply to the Knowledge Argument
Ability Hypothesis: Mary knows all the facts about color vision before her release. She only gains new practical knowledge (i.e. ability to recognize and imagine red things)
This targets Premise 2: Mary does not know all the facts about color vision before leaving the black- and-white room. Rather, Mary does know all the facts, but she doesn't have a certain know-how.
Explain Lady Lovelace’s Objection to the Turing Test, and how Turing replies
Everything a computer does is wholly determined by the program we write for it. Reply: While we think we display genuine novelty, perhaps everything we do is wholly determined by our genetic inheritance and history of experience. Moreover, machines often surprise us, just as other people do.
Explain the Brain Simulator reply, and how Searle responds
Suppose we reproduce the abstract structure of the brain by replacing neurons with silicon chips that send signals to one another. Then our computer would be intelligent! Reply: Suppose you are surrounded by billions of valves and pipes. You have instructions telling you which valves to turn and in what order. You run the same program as the brain simulator. Still, you (and the system) don’t understand Chinese.
What is Block's first name?
Ned
When did Thomas Nagel die?
He didn't! He was born in 1937, retired in 2016, and is now 88 years old.
Explain the Phenomenal Concept reply to the Knowledge Argument
Proponents of the phenomenal concept strategy argue that Mary learns an old fact in a new way. How? She grasps the fact using new concepts: Phenomenal concepts.
This targets Premise 2 as well. Before release, Mary knows all the facts, but not in every possible way.