Foundational Concepts
A system where leaders must follow a written constitution and are chosen in elections.
Constitutional Democracy
In a theocracy, what type of law serves as the foundation for all state legislation and judicial decisions?
The idea that a king's right to rule comes from God.
Divine Right of Kings
In Iran, citizens cannot legally establish or join organised opposition groups due to the absence of what democratic freedom?
When several political parties exist but one party really controls everything
One-Party Dictatorship
What does “polyarchy” mean? Explain in two simple points why it needs both “competition” and “broad inclusion.”
A government where many groups compete for power (competition) and most adults can vote or run for office (broad inclusion). Because without competition, only one group would ever win; without inclusion, many people would be left out.
In a “mixed” or “hybrid” system—where elections are held but not truly fair—guess two ways those elections might be undermined (even if on paper they appear competitive).
Opposition candidates being arrested or intimidated
State control over TV and newspapers, limiting what voters can learn - propaganda/censorship
Last-minute changes to voting rules that disqualify real challengers
Laws against forming oppositional political parties
How does the highest-governing court in a non-religious democracy differ from another highest-governing country in a theocratic republic?
In a non-religious democracy, the court checks if laws agree with a written constitution, but in a theocratic republic, the court also checks if laws follow religious rules.
Judges in a democracy are chosen by presidents or parliaments, whereas in a theocracy, religious leaders help pick judges to make sure they follow religious laws
Sometimes there are too many referendums and people get tired of voting. Explain why this is a problem and give one real example.
Referendum fatigue happens when voters see too many issues to vote on, so they get tired and stop paying attention or do not vote, making turnout low
The King holds final authority over all branches of government—executive, legislative, and judicial. There are no national elections for public office. Instead, royal decrees set policies and appoint key officials. The Council of Ministers, chosen by the King, drafts laws that the King then approves. Religious law (sharia) is applied directly, and there is no constitutional limitation on the monarch’s powers.”
Based on this, identify two ways Saudi Arabia demonstrates characteristics of an absolute monarchy.
King issues royal decrees that carry the force of law without needing approval from an elected legislature
No national elections—key officials are appointed by the King rather than chosen by voters
In 1985, after two decades of military rule, Brazil began restoring democratic freedoms. Political parties that had been banned, like the Brazilian Democratic Movement, were legalized, and opposition figures could run for office. Censorship of newspapers, radio, and television was lifted, allowing journalists to criticize government and military actions. A Constituent Assembly drafted a new Constitution (1988) guaranteeing freedoms such as speech, assembly, and habeas corpus, and establishing an independent judiciary. Finally, in 1989, Brazilians voted in direct presidential elections for the first time since 1960, marking the end of military control over the presidency.
Identify two specific rights or freedoms that Brazil regained between 1985 and 1990.
Freedom of speech
The right to form and join political parties
Freedom of assembly
Judicial independence/legal rights/right to a fair trial
In North Korea, the Workers’ Party of Korea is the only legal political party. All newspapers, television, and radio stations are controlled by the state, and no independent news outlets exist. Citizens must request permission to travel between cities, and they cannot hold public gatherings or protests without government approval. People who criticize the government often disappear or are sent to labor camps. Religious activities are banned unless officially approved, and all children are taught from a young age to show loyalty to the Supreme Leader.
Identify two freedoms that North Koreans do not have, based on this extract.
Freedom of the press
Freedom of assembly (public gatherings or protests)
Freedom of movement (travel between cities)
Freedom of religion
Freedom to form political parties
Name two ways a theocracy differs from a regular dictatorship.
In a theocracy, laws come from religious texts (e.g., sharia), not from a single ruler.
In a theocracy, religious leaders have final say instead of military or party leaders
In a theocracy, leaders claim power from God, but in a dictatorship, leaders use force or party control
In a theocracy, people must follow both religious and state laws, but in a dictatorship, they follow only state laws
Japan kept an emperor but added a new constitution. What kind of monarchy was that? What power moved from the emperor to others?
Constitutional monarchy
Compare how decisions are made in a monarchy versus in a democracy. Identify two differences in terms of who makes laws and how leaders can be held accountable.
In a monarchy, laws can be issued by the monarch without input from citizens, while in a democracy, laws originate in an elected legislature chosen by voters
In a monarchy, the ruler is not directly accountable to the people, whereas in a democracy, elected officials can be voted out of office if citizens disapprove
In the United Kingdom, the monarch serves as a ceremonial head of state. Real lawmaking power rests with the elected Parliament. Citizens vote in regular elections to choose Members of Parliament. The monarch cannot block or veto laws passed by Parliament.
Identify two ways a democracy in the UK limits the monarch’s power.
1. The monarch cannot veto or block laws passed by Parliament.
2. Citizens vote in free elections to choose the lawmakers who hold real power.
In Russia, regular elections are held, but leading opposition figures are barred from running or jailed. State television airs mostly pro-government content, and independent news outlets face legal harassment. The parliament passes laws favoring the president’s agenda without genuine debate. Courts often side with officials, so citizens cannot challenge unlawful decrees effectively.
Name two ways Russia’s institutions are controlled by the ruling regime.
1. Barring or imprisoning opposition candidates so elections lack real competition
2. State control or harassment of independent media, preventing unbiased coverage.
Pakistan’s blasphemy laws allow anyone to accuse others of insulting religion, leading to arrests without clear evidence. Judges and police often defer to religious hardliners when handling these cases. Minority faith groups face discrimination in courts and schools, with little legal protection. Protesters against religious laws risk violent backlash from extremist groups.
Identify two freedoms or protections that are restricted in this extract.
1. Freedom of expression (criticism of religious laws is punished).
2. Equal legal protection for religious minorities (they face discrimination)
In recent years, Venezuela held elections, but many opposition parties were banned from participating. The judiciary often ruled in favor of the ruling party, and the national assembly was packed with loyalists. Independent media outlets have been shut down or forced to self-censor. Citizens cannot challenge government decisions in a fair court.
Clue: Identify two institutions or practices missing in Venezuela compared to a healthy democracy.
1. An independent legislature free from ruling-party control
2. An independent judiciary that can rule against the government
3. Free and independent media outlets
In a democracy, power is divided among branches: the legislature makes laws, the judiciary reviews them, and the executive enforces them. Citizens can vote out leaders who abuse power. In a dictatorship, one person or a small group holds all branches of power. There are no meaningful checks, and citizens cannot remove leaders until the regime collapses.
Identify two structural differences between democratic and dictatorial systems.
1. In a democracy, power is shared among separate branches of government; in a dictatorship, one ruler controls legislative, judicial, and executive functions.
2. In a democracy, citizens can replace leaders through elections; in a dictatorship, there is no legal way to remove leaders until the regime ends.
Schumpeter described democracy as a system where citizens choose leaders through competitive elections. Once elected, those leaders decide public policy. Citizens do not make laws directly but must re-elect or replace policymakers. Campaigns focus on winning votes, not broad public deliberation.
Name two features of Schumpeter’s idea about democracy.
1. Citizens only choose leaders in competitive elections; they do not vote on laws themselves.
2. Elected officials have full authority to make policy until the next election.
In Kenya, multiple parties compete in regular elections with active media coverage and peaceful transitions of power. Civil society groups lobby parliament between elections, influencing new laws. In Ethiopia, recent elections occurred but opposition parties report unfair barriers, and state security forces restrict protests. Independent journalists in Ethiopia face harassment, limiting public debate outside election periods.
List two ways Kenya’s system shows elements of a polyarchy and two ways Ethiopia’s recent practice reflects Schumpeter’s minimal procedural democracy.
1. Polyarchic features in Kenya:
• “Multiple parties compete freely in elections with genuine media debate.”
• “Civil society groups influence lawmakers between elections.”
2. Schumpeterian features in Ethiopia:
• “Elections occur but opposition faces unfair barriers to run.”
• “Public debate is confined largely to election campaigns, with limited influence between polls.”
In Saudi Arabia, religious police enforce strict interpretations of Islamic law, and public worship of non-Muslim faiths is banned. Citizens cannot publish or speak against religious authorities. By contrast, in Egypt (a secular republic), the constitution guarantees freedom of religion and speech, and courts can overturn laws that violate those rights. Journalists and activists in Egypt can criticize government policies, though they face other risks.
Name two fundamental rights protected in Egypt but limited in Saudi Arabia.
1. Freedom of religion (Egyptians can practice or criticize various faiths, but Saudis cannot publicly worship other religions).
2. Freedom of speech (Egyptians can publish critical articles about government or religion, but Saudis face punishment for speech against authorities)
After a military coup, Myanmar’s armed forces dissolved the elected parliament and replaced it with a military-controlled assembly. Political parties were declared illegal, and many opposition leaders were arrested. Judges now enforce only military directives, and civilian courts no longer function independently. Citizens cannot petition any institution to hold leaders accountable.
1. The armed forces appoint all legislative members instead of allowing free elections
2. The judiciary follows military orders rather than applying impartial laws
3. Political parties are banned, preventing any organized opposition
India holds regular national and state elections where citizens of almost all ages and backgrounds vote for multiple parties. Independent newspapers, television channels, and online outlets report freely on government actions and policy debates. After elections, elected representatives make most laws and policies, and citizens participate by voting rather than direct lawmaking. Civil society groups and protests occur between elections but have limited influence on immediate policy decisions.
Clue: Based on this extract, list two features that show elements of a polyarchic system and two features that reflect Schumpeter’s minimal procedural democracy.
1. Polyarchic features:
• “Free press and multiple parties allow ongoing public debate.”
• “Civil society groups and protests enable citizen voices between elections.”
2. Schumpeter’s minimal features:
• “Citizens only choose representatives in elections rather than making laws directly.”
• “Elected officials have sole authority to craft policies until the next election.”