Economy
Social Structure
Local Political Life
Everyday Life
Religion
Influence of Greek & Egyptian Cultures
100
Identify what this source is and its use
The Mensa Ponderaria was a bench with 9 holes used standardise measurements in the market
100
Identify who is depicted and why are they significant
Eumachia constructed a large public building in the Forum. She is believed to be the patron (in the patron-client relationship) to those in the fullery industry.
100
Identify this well known politician from Herculaneum
Marcus Nonius Balbus
100
Identify the source and its use in everyday life
Thermopolia were fast food stalls which allowed busy Pompeians to eat on the go
100
Identify this source and its use 
Larariums were used for the worship of the lares (household gods) and were attended daily by the Paterfamilia of the house
100
Identify what the source is depicting and why it is significant
The temple of Isis was a significant and popular cult in Pompeii and Herculaneum because it promised an Afterlife
200
Time to make some money!
Stand up and physically demonstrate how a Roman fuller processed clothes in a fullonica, referencing the key chemical agent collected in public jars
200
Time to role play!
reenact the client patron relationship
200
Who is that?!
reenact someone having a political “voice”
200
What are you doing?!
reenact a pompeian having a meal (wealthy in triclinium, thermopolium, bars/taberna playing dice)
200
Pay attention!
reenact a daily worship at a household lararium
200
Where is that from?
reenact greek or egyptian influence (alexander the great mosaic, the hile mosaic, statues, architecture)
300
Outline what evidence supports the operation of fulleries in Pompeii
Amphorae were left on the street for people to make 'deposits' as ammonia from urine was used for the washing of clothes. Structures such as the Fullery of Stephanus have also been uncovered which support the operations of laundromats in Pompeii.
300
Outline what is known about slaves in Pompeii and Herculaneum
Little evidence remains from slaves but it is estimated that slaves made up approximately 40% of the population in Pompeii. Few houses had seperate quarters for slaves who were responsible for domestic chores and duties. Few tombstones have been uncovered that are attributed to slaves.
300
Outline what the comitium is
The Comitium is the peoples assembly which includes all adult male citizens including freedmen who elected magistrates and voted honours.
300
Outline the different types of leisure activities evidenced from Pompeii and Herculaneum
Locals could enjoy attending Gladiatorial games were gladiators who were usually slaves or convicted criminals would fight other men or animals. The Ampitheatre also hosted events funded by elected magistrates who had to keep the public happy such as the Apollo Games. Exercising in the palaestra was practiced by military and youth organisations and promoted by the Emperor. Theatres such as the Large and Odeon in Pompeii showed pantomines, plays and farces. Mosaics depicting cockfighting have also been found.
300
Outline the gods worshiped in the Capitolium located in the Pompeian Forum
The Capitolium was dedicated to the worship of the Capitoline Triad of Roman gods including Jupiter, Juno and Minerva.
300
Outline evidence of Greek influence at Herculaneum
The name of the city of Herculaneum is believed to have been derived from the Greek demi god Herakles (Hercules) with images of found in public fountains and in wineshops across Herculaneum.
400
Describe some of the occupations supported by evidence found at Pompeii and Herculaneum
Tradesmen, wealthy merchants and manufacturers with Peristyles in some houses believed to be used as manufacturing workshops. Artisans including metalworkers and glassblowers demonstrated by glass and metalwares found in houses across the city. Banking evidenced by a cache of 127 wax tablets found in the Villa Murecine with business transactions of the Sulpicci family. Weaving shop run by servants (House of M. Terentius Eudoxus). Bakers who worked the millstones in the Pisteria's. Inn keepers who looked after the Insulae / apartment style houses. Bath attendants who operated the public Thermaes. Brothel keepers and prostitutes who worked in the Lupanar.
400
Describe the role of women in Pompeii and Herculaneum
Women's main responsibility in the Roman world was to run the household and raise the children whilst they were under the legal control of their fathers or husbands. Although they could not hold formal political office they could own property, conduct business and hold priesthoods. There is evidence to support that women supported electoral candidates, recieved honourary statues and tombs and could even be successful patrons to clients (Eumachia).
400
Describe the positions of Duumviri, Aedile and Quaestors
The Duumviri were the two senior magistrates elected for a 1 year period in both Pompeii and Herculaneum who looked after judicial matters. Aediles were the junior magistrates in Pompeii elected for a year responsible for the judicial system, public works, administration, municipal cults, games & public entertainment and the markets. Quaestors were the officials in Herculaneum elected who were in charge of managing finances.
400
Describe the different styles of housing found across Pompeii and Herculaneum
Domus-Atrium houses were usually single storey but two storey have been uncovered in Herc that were owned by members of the senate, equestrian classes or local aristocracy which had decorative elements such as floor tiles or mosaics and mural scense painted on the walls. Atrium-Peristyle houses have a peristyle courtyard surrounded by colonades and ornamental plants and statues with fountain features, pools, murals and running water as the centrepiece which give access to the dining and living rooms for wealthy homeowners. Insulae or apartment style housing were multistorey tenements the varied in size where many of the ordinary citizens lived. Villas were large and luxurious multicoloured dwellings on the outskirts of Pompeii and Herculaneum along the coast and used as holiday homes by wealthy Romans.
400
Describe what has been learned about life in Pompeii and Herculaneum from tombs
A variety of tombs from different social classes rich and poor have been found buried together in tombs and inscriptions in the necropolis (cemetery) outside the city gates as burial inside the gates was forbidden. Funerary inscriptions identify the person and their rank in society with vital information on their works and activities. There are many tombs found in Pompeii for freedmen and women but few for children with the rich having sepulchral monuments representative of their importance to the political life of Pompeii. No excavations of tombs have been found at Herculaneum yet but it is fair to assume similar burials would have been practised.
400
Describe examples of Egyptian art and Architecture found in Pompeii and Herculaneum
Nilotic scenes in mosaics have been found in the threshold of the House of the Faun which depict crocodiles, hippopotamus and ibis'. Garden art in the water feature of the Pradaea (House of Julia Felix represent the delta branch of the Nile. Wall paintings with Egyptian motifs are located in the temple of Isis depicting Egyptian landscapes and mythology.
500
Explain what evidence reveals about local commercial activity in Pompeii
Shopfronts were often attached to houses with the dwellings for the residents either upstairs or behind the shopfront indicating a bustling commercial life along the Via dell'Abbondanza. Asellina's Thermopolium is an example of an almost fully intact fast food stall in Pompeii where dolias are embedded into the counters which have fresco images identifying different food and drink. Scholars believe these were used for dry food such as nuts, grains, dried fruit and vegetables which has been supported by findings of carbonised nuts in Herculaneum. Bars and inns have been found in Pompeii near both the Nuceria Gate and the Forum both containing courtyards and upper floor rooms to accomadate for travellers and locals. The House of Julia Felix (Praedia) has evidence of temporary stalls selling shoes, clothes, metal vessels, fruit and vegetables indicating further local commercial activity.
500
Explain how a slave could become a freedman/woman in Pompeii and Herculaneum
Roman society allowed slaves to be manumitted by their owner, or buy their own freedom, sometimes from an allowance given to them by their masters. These ex-slaves were called the liberti and maintained a legal and social bond with their ex-masters. They may have remained in the house or operated the business on behalf of the patron with evidence suggesting that some liberti became quite wealthy (House of the Vetti). Although freedmen/women were not granted full citizen rights not being allowed to vote, stand for office or hold priesthoods their children born after manumission were legally freeborn and free from these restrcitions.
500
Explain the role of the client-patron relationship in Pompeii and Herculaneum
The client-patron relationship is a mutual obligation which benefits both parties. An elite freeborn family elected as patrons to the lower classes financially support them during political elections in exchange for political, legal and social benefits when elected. Eumachia who has a building in the Forum built in her name is believed to be the patron to clients associated with the fullers guild as her building is believed to be closely connected to the textile industry.
500
Explain what evidence reveals about the diet of those living in Pompeii and Herculaneum
Latrine pits and sewer remains provide significant evidence on the diets of Pompeians. Latrines were located near or in kitchens and used to dispose of human excrement and food scraps. In 2011, archaeologists retrieved 750 bags of human excrement from an unexcavated sewer where grape pips, fig pips, fish bones and sea urchin shells were found. Seeds and pips from dates, figs and olives have also been preserved in volcanic ash while carbonised eggs, figs, loaves of bread, walnuts, hazelnuts and almonds have also been found. A variety of animal bones including sheep, pig, and cattle suggest the consumption of meat while fish bones, shells from scallops, cockles, sea urchins and cuttlefish demonstrate a range of seafood included in their diet. Professor Wilhelmina Jashemski and archaeologist specialising in Pompeian gardens discovered that many houses had space for the cultivation of figs, olives, cherries and other fruit and vegetables in addition to vineyards also being found within the walls of Pompeii contributing to viticulture and the drinking of local wines. The university of Cincinnati examined 20 shops at the Porta Stabia where in 2014 archaeologists reported evidence of grains, fruits, nuts, olives, lentils, fish and eggs. In addition to this some more exotic dietary items were found including salted fish from Spain, shellfish not native to Italy, mineralised remnants of sea urchins and even a butchered leg joint of giraffe.
500
Explain what evidence has revealed about the presence of foreign religions and cults in Pompeii and Herculaneum
Pompeii and Herculaneum present a variety of evidence demonstrating a diverse range of religions and cults likely to have arrived or come into contact through trade connections. The cult of Isis was a popular Egyptian cult and goddess worshipped because she was favourable amongst women and slaves (later the greater public) with the potential of an Afterlife. Imperial cults such as the Temple of Vespasian and Fortuna Augusta demonstrate the deified worship of emperors. Many different Roman deities (appropriated from Greek culture) were worshipped in temples across the sites including Apollo, Diana, Bacchus, Jupiter, Juno, Mars, Mercury, Minerva and Neptune. Evidence of Hinduism has been found with the cult of Lakshmi (goddess of beauty, fertility and wealth) from the House of 4 styles in Pompeii. Judaism has been suggested from inscriptions found on amphorae present in the towns. Christianity has also been speculated based on the biblical names of Mary and Martha found on walls and in Herculaneum a faded inscription of a Christian cross has been found although it might just be a cross shaped bracket to support a cupboard.
500
Explain the influence of Greek culture on art and architecture
The Romans were famously known for appropriating designs they liked from other ancient societies. In Pompeii and Herculaneum architectural designs which demonstrate Greek influence include theatres which follow Hellenistic design being horseshoe shapped with Doric columns and a colonaded quadriporticus. Colonnaded Palaestras and peristyle gardens such as the one in the House of the Faun indicate Doric, Ionian and Corinthian column designs. Artistic influence from ancient Greece can be seen in many different statues being copies of Greek originals such as Doryphoros being a copy of the Greek Polyclete. A wall mosaic in the House of Neptune and Amphitrite in Herculaneum as well as other murals depicting characters and scenes from Greek mythology such as Leda and the Swan (Zeus). The Alexander mosaic in the House of the Faun in Pompeii depicts Alexander the Great and the Persian king Darius III at the Battle of Issus which is a copy of a Greek painting by Philoxenos of Eretria.
600
Assess the significance of agricultural industries to Pompeii and Herculaneum's economy
Both Pompeii and Herculaneum were coastal cities of the ancient Roman world with Herculaneum boardering the Bay of Naples and Pompeii being situated along the Sarno River giving both cities easy access to trade in the Mediterranean. The most popular export stemmed from the production of a fish sauce called Garum which was a popular condiment used in the ancient world throughout the Mediterranean. Wine & Olive oil production was a significant agricultural industry that operated out of Pompeii and Herculaneum with Pompeian wine being found in the UK. Strabo tells us that Pompeii was a port for Nuceria and Nola emphasising its importance as an agricultural trading centre. The fertile Campania region was ideal for cultivating a diverse range of fruit and vegetables including peaches, apricots, lemons, cherries, plums, pears and figs. A variety of livestock has also been evidenced through various fresco and mosaic scenes as well as bones remains found in marketplaces and the sewerage including chickens, sheep, pigs, fish, crustaceans and sea urchins.
600
Assess the value of funerary monuments for understanding the social status of people in Pompeii.
Funerary monuments are valuable because they reveal the status of specific individuals and relationships between people in society. These include relationships between a patron and client, or a freed slave and their former owner. They also demonstrate the role of the town council in providing funerary monuments to prominent Pompeians. When cross referenced with other evidence such as graffiti and information we have about buildings, they can allow us to partially reconstruct some social relationships in Pompeii. The limitations of this type of source include; the monuments are designed to memorialise (praise and tell of the good deeds). Most of the inscriptions are short. The bulk of the funerary monuments (58%, according to Henrik Mouriten are from freed slaves). Funerary monuments are limited to people with the wealth or status necessary to fund construction. Therefore whilst helpful there are some precautions that need to be considered when examining evidence from funerary monuments.
600
Assess the values and limitations of examining programatta to understand the local political life in Pompeii and Herculaneum
Graffiti associated with elections in Pompeii provides valuable insights into local political life. They tell us about the people standing for election to the role of magistrate and the people, or rogatores, asking for people to vote for them. It is possible to learn about women's involvement in politics, the patron-client relationship that underpinned the system and the role of guilds and other social groups in political campaigns. Limitations for programatta include; many of the inscriptions are fragmentary and open to interpretation. Nobody knows how effective the programatta were. Many of the programatta are positive and some are negative (the intention of the author is not always clear). Only about 30% of more than 2,500 programatta include the supporter's name. Therefore interpreting programatta provides some insights into local politcial life but needs to be supplemented with additional support from other sources.
600
Assess the sanitation of the water supply and Bathhouses of Pompeii and Herculaneum
Roman towns were generally unhygienic with rubbish in the streets and public latrines. At the time of Augustus the imperial aqueduct at Misenum had a branch to supply water to Pompeii, the Serinum aqueduct which flowed to the main water tank/tower near the Vesuvian gate (castellum aquae) that syphoned off into 3 main pipes that supplied different areas of the city. One of the pipes supplied water to the public fountains (nymphaea) with some houses in Pompeii being directly supplied with fresh running water. An overflow system was implemented from the public fountains where excess water helped with washing away rubbish collected in the street leading to the construction of stepping stones to get from one side of the street to the other to avoid stepping in and rubbish or sewerage running through the street. Few houses had latrines but if they did they were in or near the kitchen and flushed by hand or connected to the houses water supply and drained into cesspits beneath the roads sewerage system. Public latrines have been found in the north-western corner of the Forum with a capacity of 20, they had a small anteroom and then the main seating area. Latrines were communal with no private cubicles and used a tersorium (sea sponge on a stick) for cleaning themselves. Bathhouses used a hypocaust heating system whereby hot air is circulated via pipes and flues beneath the floors with vents that allowed smoke and soot to escape. Bathers wore special clogs to prevent their feet from burning. The baths had no drainage which meant that the water was a breeding ground for bacteria as the heating system would only kill off certain bacteria and help with the cultivation of others. Therefore while the sanitation standards of the water supply at Pompeii and Herculaneum is questionable by today’s standards but also somewhat adequate for the ancient world.
600
Assess the influence of religion on everyday life for Pompeii and Herculaneum
Religion had a significant influence over the everyday lives of people in Pompeii and Herculaneum. In the domestic realm many households had a lararium (shrine) in the atrium which was attended to daily by the paterfamilias who left offerings of food in exchange for protection of the family. The genius was the god of the male line of descent usually depicted as a snake and was worshipped on the birthday of the paterfamilia. Statues of the penates (gods of the food stores) were placed on the table at meal times demonstrating extensive connections to everyday life inside the household. However religion also extended beyond the household and into the public domain with several temples across the city dedicated to the worship of particular deities. One of the most important of these was the Temple of Vesta (goddess of the hearth) which was constantly maintained by 6 priestesses who were tasked with the maintenance of the temple and ensuring the flame continued to burn. Other prominent temples include the temples of Venus, Isis, Jupiter, Vespasian, Fortuna Augusta, Apollo and the public lares demonstrating extensive public practice of worship and employment for priests and priestesses. Moreover significant gods are also depicted in frescoes and mosaics throughout the cites amplifying their importance in daily life at Pompeii and Herculaneum such as Bacchus the god of wine who is an appropriated Greek Dionysus. Furthermore tombs which have been found outside the gates of Pompeii provide valuable insights into the funerary practices and customs dedicated to the deceased. Whilst it was the role of the magistrates to organise the placement of burial plots individuals could only have a memorial stone or plaque if they had the means to afford one. Therefore it is clear that religion had an inextricable connection to the everylife lives in Pompeii and Herculaneum.
600
Assess the impact of Greek and Egyptian cultures on Pompeii and Herculaneum
Greek and Egyptian cultures were introduced to Pompeii and Herculaneum through trade and contact which had a tremendous impact on the developments of these Vesuvian cities. Most notably in the areas of art, architecture and religion they helped shape the image of the ancient towns. Many frescoes and mosaics can be found throughout both Pompeii and Herculaneum which portray Greek and Egyptian deities as well as themes and motifs from mythological stories associated with their cultures. Examples of this include the Hellenistic styling of a fresco in the House of Neptune and Amphitrite in Herculaneum and Nilotic scenes from the House of the Faun in Pompeii. Furthermore the influence of Greek architecture can be seen through the implementation of a variety of Greek stylised columns including Doric, Ionian and Corinthian used for peristyle gardens, theatres, temples, palaestras and other colonnaded venues. Religion was a prominent part of daily life in Pompeii and Herculaneum which was heavily infiltrated by influences from both the Greek and Egyptian cultures. The cult of Isis and Sarapis were popular because they offered the possibility of an Afterlife while Egyptian gods such as Anubis, Harpocrates, Isis and Sarapis have been found depicted in statues and paintings in the lararium of the House of the Golden Cupids. Greek deities such as Herakles were significant in Herculaneum with images of him being found in public fountains, inside houses and in wine shops as well as a statuette found in the Temple of Isis in Pompeii. Further examples include a sanctuary for Dionysus near the Ampitheatre and murals thought to depict initiation rituals to the cult of Dionysus in the Villa of Mysteries. Therefore there is a plethora of evidence supporting the extensive impact and influence of Greek and Egyptian cultures on Pompeii and Herculaneum.