Research methods and Replication
What is being manipulated/changed
What the scientists are measuring
IV
DV
What are covert and overt orienting? How do they differ from one another?
Covert orienting is directing your attention w/out physical change (ex. dichotic listening). Overt orienting is when you physically direct your attention.
What is "scapegoat" treatment?
pair chemo w/ novel food to avoid forming association between nausea and familiar food.
the elementary units of meaningful sound used to produce languages
What are phonemes?
1.) trying lots of analyses until you get a desired outcome.
2.) hypothesizing after results are known (presenting exploratory findings as confirmatory).
what is p-hacking
what is HARKing
What are sustained attention, divided attention, and selective attention?
Sustained attention is how we focus on 1 part of our environment and how we move our attention to other locations in the environment. Divided attention is how well individuals can attend to many sources of info at once. Selective attention is how some info is attended to while other info is intentionally blocked out.
What does it mean that a reinforcer or a punisher is positive or negative?
pos reinforce: add or increase pleasant stimulus (behavior is strengthened)
neg. reinforce: reduce or remove and unpleasant stimulus (behavior is strengthened)
Pos punish: present or add an unpleasant stimulus (behavior is weakened)
neg punish: reduce or remove a pleasant stimulus (behavior is weakened)
a time in which learning can easily occur. for lang learning lasting between infancy and puberty and after which lang learning was more difficult or impossible
What is the critical period hypothesis?
Distinguish between correlational studies, quasi-experiments, and true experiments. What are the major features of each type of design? What are they major differences between them?
Relationship between two continuously valued variables (measure, not manipulate)
have random assignment (manipulate, causality)
not random assignment and you use pre-existing groups (ex. freshman vs. senior stress b/c they are two distinct non-random groups). (manipulation)
Describe and be able to distinguish between the following types of memory: explicit, implicit, episodic, semantic, priming, classical conditioning, procedural.
Explicit: the knowledge or experiences that can be consciously remembered (requires conscious awareness)
Implicit: Does not require conscious awareness, it is the influence of experience in behaviour, even if you are not aware of the influences.
Episodic: Is first-hand experiences that we have had.
Semantic: Is our knowledge of facts and concepts about the world.
Priming: a change in behavior as a result of experiences that happened frequently/recently. It is both the activation of knowledge and the influence of that activation on behavior.
Classical conditioning: when we learn w/out effort or awareness to associate neutral stimuli (sound or lights) w/other stimulus (food) which create a naturally occurring response.
Procedural: our unexplainable knowledge of how to do things (walk, ride a bike,speak) allows us to perform complex tasks.
complex behaviors can be trained by reinforcing behaviors that become gradually closer to the desired behavior.
what is shaping?
speakers of diif. lang. are able to hear the difference only between some phonemes
What is categorical perception?
-truth: no effect
-findings: effect
-truth: effect
-findings: no effect
1.) type 1
2.) type 2
What are the two serial position effects? What do they each reveal about memory?
Primacy effect: first to go into encoding long term)
Recency effect: still in short term (ex. last thing you you heard).
Describe fixed ratio schedules, variable ratio schedules, fixed interval schedules, and variable interval schedules.
fixed ratio schedules: pattern in which we provide reinforcement following a regular # of responses
variable ratio schedules: pattern in which we provide reinforcement after a specific # of responses on average, e/the # varying randomly
fixed interval schedules: pattern in which we provide reinforcement for producing the response at least once following a specified time interval
variable interval schedules: pattern in which we provide reinforcement for producing the response at least once during an average time interval, w/the interval varying randomly
What is linguistic relativity? Describe empirical evidence for it. How does linguistic relativity differ from linguistic determinism?
linguistic relativity: linguistic categories and usage influence thought (ex. gendered words in other lang determine what they think about the object).
linguistic determinism: language determines thought
What are confounds? How can participant demands, experimenter expectations, and the placebo effect act as confounds? How can double-blind procedures avoid the confounds?
A confound is a variable that can undermine the ability to draw causal inferences. Experimenter expectations can act as confounds because a researcher's cognitive bias causes them to subconsciously influence the participants of an experiment. The placebo effect can act as a confound because people will act as if the study impacted them because they expect it to. Participant demands act as confounds the participants will say/do what they think the experimenter wants them to do. Double-blind procedures avoid confounding because it allows for no one to know what they were receiving as treatment and the researcher wouldn't know either.
Describe the main findings of the "Misconceptions of Memory" article. You should be able to describe both the independent and dependent variables.
Give evidence that motivation affects encoding more than retrieval.
article about the man not exposing peoples identities/information because he did not remember being told that he wasnt supposed to do that.
DV: Does motivation impact memory
IV: the motivation (before or after the pictures and facts)
if you are more motivated when you go to learn the information, it will be easier to recall/retrieve because will have thought it to be important. ex. misconception of memory article, when they were told to remember important info before they were show it they did better.
Define the previously neutral stimulus, UR, US, CR, and CS. What does each correspond to in Pavlov's classic experiment? You should be comfortable identifying those five components in examples of classical conditioning
US: us something that triggers a natural occurring response
UR: is the naturally occurring response that follows US
CS: a neural stimulus that after being repeatedly presented prior to the US evokes a similar response as the US
CR: is acquired response to the formerly neutral stimulus
Describe how language learning progresses in infants and children. You should be familiar with the ages at which they become sensitive to speech sounds, make vowel sounds, babble, and produce first words. What kinds of words are learned first? What types of errors are common?
learning lang starts before birth since fetus hears voices from outside the womb. 6-8 weeks they start to make vowel sounds. after 7 months they start to babble. by 6 months they start to undterstand words, especially their own name. 10-12 months they start to understand words like doggie, bottle, mama
1 yr they start to say first words. 2 yr have vocab set of several hundred words , kindergarten, severa thousnad, 5th grade 50,000, college 200,000.
errors: confusing b and d or c and z
they make simplified words ex.) nana-banana