I'm Sorry, Have We Met Before?
Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind
Schacter’s Seven Deadly Sins
It's a Learning Curve
Monkey See, Monkey Do
100
Define encoding (i.e., what does it mean when someone says they encoded a piece of information?). Then, describe two processes that follow encoding.
Hint: This information is in 8.1 of your textbook.
What is...
Encoding basically means that we are aware of something and processing it in our environment. I would probably say it is the observation or experience that then gets stored as a memory for subsequent retrieval. The textbook defines it similarly with encoding being an input of information from our external environment into the memory system. We then mark labels on the information that are like markers or tabs to refer back to--especially when organizing information and connecting new concepts to pre-existing ones we already know.
The two types of processing that follows are automatic and elaborate encoding processes. Automatic is basically what we encode without conscious awareness. This can include encoding time, place, meaning of words on a surface level, etc. Elaborate processing entails making deeper connections, and focusing attention on encoding certain materials. For instance, an example of elaborate encoding would be you hopefully studying for this upcoming 101 exam. You are honing in on details and pieces of information that may be relevant to what you see on the test.
100
Identify and describe the two types of amnesia.
What is...
Anterograde amnesia: This is usually caused by physical trauma, and the area of the brain that is affected is the Hippocampus. Damage to this region causes one to not be able to remember or encode new memories, albeit you can remember events that happened prior to the injury. This is an inability to transfer info from STM to LTM. Procedural memories are different in this regard, because those involve the cerebellum. So while one may not remember if you were in the room talking with them five minutes ago, if they practiced a puzzle before, they can do it again since they learned it via procedural memory (even if they do not remember having seen the puzzle before).
Retrograde Amnesia: This is the type of amnesia you see in the movies. Usually. This refers to a loss of memory about events prior to trauma. Some people may lose memories of their past, either entirely or partially.
100
There are seven (obviously non-deadly but I am all about the puns!) sins of memory. Each category here will ask you to define one of them.
Define the "sin" of transience.
What is...
Transience is one of the three "forgetting" sins; this is essentially memory decay over time. As the more time passes, the less likely you are to remember central details of an event; accessibility to that memory event decreases.
100
Define the concept of learning.
What is...
Learning is a relatively permanent change of behavior as a result of knowledge and experience. Key emphasis on knowledge and experience. For instance, think of a rat running a maze trying to find the quickest way out. It develops a mental map so eventually it will know where to go. Based on knowledge and experience, the rat learned the path to the maze that was the fastest.
Maybe also another example: There was a point where I almost had my cat, Thor, able to sit down before I fed him some slices of ground chicken. Is this an example of learning?
However, also think about what may not be considered learning. Is taking a new medication to help with constant Arthritis learning? How about eating and drinking? Does that require learning? Feel free to discuss...
100
Define both reinforcement and punishment.
What is...
Reinforcement: An event that follows behavior that therefore increases frequency of the response in the future (response = behavior).
Punishment: An event that follows behavior that therefore decreases the frequency of the response in the future.
200
Fergus Craik and Endel Tulving (1975) found that _________ encoding resulted in better memory and retention of material, because participants were asked about the meaning of the words; compared to ________ encoding which concerns superficial details, such as the font type of a word, or _________ encoding which concerns the sound of words, __________ encoding is often applied with the ___________ effect where we connect information back to ourselves the more personally relevant it is.
What is....
1. Semantic encoding.
2. Visual encoding.
3. Acoustic encoding.
4. Semantic (again).
5. Self-reference effect.
200
Describe Arousal Theory.
What is...
Strong emotions trigger formation of strong memories, and weaker experiences form weaker memories. Memory for an event is better when it is emotional than not. When stressed, brain secretes more glutamate which helps remember stressful events—this leads to the flashbulb memory phenomena.
200
Define the "sin" of blocking.
What is...
Blocking is the second sin of the forgetting category. It is also called "Tip of the tongue" syndrome. You know the basic essence of the information--maybe it is a singer you used to listen to SO much as a teenager, but when asked who it is, you just cannot remember their name. The image of their face is clear in your mind, but the name just won't come to you. Information is temporarily blocked.
200
Define the general definition of classical conditioning.
What is a "process by which we learn to associate stimuli and, consequently, to anticipate events"?
200
Identify if the example below is a positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, positive punishment, or negative punishment contingency:
I work pretty hard on review materials for the classes I TA for. Dr. D. gives me praise and compliments my work. I am more likely to work even harder as such, increasing my productivity, etc.
What is...
Positive reinforcement contingency. With positive, remember it is the addition of a stimulus. When it is reinforcement, it increases the future frequency of the behavior/response.
We can diagram it as follows:
Because of the praise I received from Dr. D., my behavior of creating such amazing review materials will increase.
In operant/instrumental conditioning, consequences influence behavior and change the probability of the behavior occurring in the future or if it will be suppressed.
300
The differences between the Atkinson and Shiffrin model, and the Baddeley and Hitch model of memory.
The Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) model concerns the three stages of memory before the memory event goes into storage. The three stages are Sensory memory, Short-Term Memory, and Long-Term Memory. This model is the one where we compare processing to a computer. We have to first integrate and interpret sensory information (taste, smell, touch, sight, audio stimuli) from our environment, decide what is relevant or not. Short term memory takes this info and can even connect it to something already in long-term memory depending on its relevance. Information can be stored/held in STM for up to 15-30 seconds.
Memories are not equal—this really means that what we remember is going to have more weight to it depending on what was encoded. Would you remember a frequent trip to Java City, or would you more so remember the time that during a trip to Java City, you spilled that hot drink all over a countertop and had to clean it up with small napkins?
Anyway. Information not transferred from sensory memory to short term memory is considered lost. From short term memory to long term memory, anything NOT transferred in between gets lost.
Short-term memory involves a process of information in our current awareness, such as if I were repeating a number to myself before dialing it. Long-term memory however coalesces what passes through the sensory and short-term stages and is presumed to be “unlimited.” Rehearsal moves info from STM to LTM, and the more we attend to specific stimuli, it may be moved into LTM.
When you practice information enough to be remembered, that would be considered active rehearsal. When you want to compare new information and connect it back to something you already know (stronger memory traces there), then that would be considered elaborative rehearsal.
So, this model is also called the multi-store model and it does have some problems. First, it is a very simplified view that STM and LTM operate in a unitary way with the flow of information. Other models suggest multiple components of STM and LTM, and how memories get transferred into LTM.
STM is assumed as a gateway between sensory and LTM, as well as assumed to represent the content of information we consciously, actively engaging in. It is NOT only conscious information that can be stored in LTM, and this is one of the limitations in this model that does not account for that. Lastly, items within STM have equal status; it doesn’t necessarily point out discrepancies in the type of STM that may be more (or less) attentionally engaging or demanding, and how it may (or may not) get transferred to LTM.
The Baddeley and Hitch Model of working memory is an alternative to short-term memory, and it has multiple components. In the center of the model concerns the central executive which involves decision-making, attention, planning, task switching. Attention is distributed to other components in the model involved in processing, especially as there are various things in our environment that compete for our precious attention. The executive function from the central executive serves to organize the functioning of the cognitive system to achieve current goals (for example, select attention while talking with a friend, and also actively trying to cook something new on the stove. We are ignoring and inhibiting other stimuli in our environment especially as different things compete for our attention).
The phonological loop is a verbal subcomponent of the working memory model. Storage area holds information briefly and the loop refreshes the trace; this is where maintenance rehearsal happens. It holds two seconds worth of information that someone says. Think of it happening constantly as you listen to your professor lecturing and then try to quickly type up what they are saying into your notes. It is going through the loop as you are being spoken to, and you are refreshing the last spoken piece of information. As well, when you see a visual word, the loop translates it into a verbal code, depositing it into the phonological store.
The visuospatial sketchpad involves mental manipulation and imagination based on the visual and spatial elements of our environment.
Lastly, this part of the working memory model was added around 2000. It is relatively lamely recent. The episodic buffer is a component of this model that integrates episodic memory from the information that the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad processed. This buffer takes that information, integrates it, and creates a memory episode. Information in long-term memory creates this episodic buffer.
300
Define and give an example of a flashbulb memory.
What is...
Exceptionally clear recollection of an important event. They generally relate to memory for national or global events, but that is not always the case. Usually we hear these types of memories are negative, but positive events can also elicit flashbulb memories.
A negative one for me is (trigger warning in advance since this is about a school shooting): I can remember where I was, what I was doing, and who I was with when I first heard the news about the Sandy Hook shooting as a child. I remember it playing on my crappy television at the time, I remember I just came into my room wanting to lie down, and my aunt was inside (don’t ask, it was a surprise that she was in there), and had the TV on.
With that said, as time goes on, flashbulb memories are not immune to memory decay. It is possible to point out discrepancies in the flashbulb memory to the actual event and see how these kinds of memories can be fragile as well. When you remember something, it goes through reconstruction and it does create a chance for error to happen.
300
Define the "sin" of absentmindedness.
What is...
Absentmindedness is the third and final type of forgetting in this category. It is a temporary lapse in attention which causes you to forget information. An example of this happens to me often: Before I leave a class, I grab my laptop, shut it, and then slide it into my backpack. It is automatic for me at this point that I have had lapses in doing this and I panic for a moment wondering if I even remembered to put it in my bag.
300
Define unconditioned stimulus (US or UCS), unconditioned response (UR), and conditioned stimulus (CS) and conditioned response (CR).
Bonus if you can tell me the slight difference between a neutral stimulus and a conditioned stimulus, too. : )
What is...
US: A stimulus that automatically elicits a reflexive response without any prior learning history. It is UNLEARNED.
UR: A response that follows the US, or is elicited by the US.
CS: A stimulus that through the pairing process with the US elicits a (conditioned) response.
CR: A response that is elicited by the CS.
Bonus round: A neutral stimulus and the conditioned stimulus are nearly the same, BUT the neutral stimulus does not yet have associative properties with the US. It does not bring that expectation of getting the US yet, because it has not been paired. The CS, however, is like a signal indicating that the US will be following it, and it therefore will elicit the CR.
300
Identify if the example below is a positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, positive punishment, or negative punishment contingency:
I have a pretty bad headache, and it is causing my skull to feel like it is pounding. I take two Tylenols, and the headache is no longer there.
What is...
Negative reinforcement contingency. Remember, negative is merely taking something away. Reinforcement, as you know, increases the probability of behavior in the future. Negative reinforcement involves the removal of an aversive stimulus, and the behavior to get rid of the aversive stimuli therefore increases. Consider it escape behavior. We do this all the time, such as with turning down the temperature when it gets too hot inside; or even ducking behind a column outside to avoid someone who weirds you out so much, you just do not want to talk to them.
The original example can be diagrammed as follows:
400
Tell me first what explicit and implicit memories are. Then, delve deeper into each type of implicit or explicit memory category.
What is...
Explicit memory: Memories we consciously try to recall and remember.
Explicit memory is divided into episodic and semantic memory. Episodic memory is autobiographical memory and it plays like a video in your head about specific life-events. It is about what happened, where it happened, and when it happened apropos an event.
Semantic memories are fact-based memories. If I asked you right now when was JFK killed, you would probably know. If I asked someone who was alive at the time of his assassination what they were doing on that day, that would involve episodic memory.
Implicit memories: Long term memories not part of our consciousness. Can influence observable behaviors and cognitive tasks. Includes procedural, priming, and emotional conditioning.
Emotional conditioning: Classically conditioned emotional responses.
Implicit priming: Exposure to stimulus affects response to a later stimulus. You receive a prompt of the information Example: Dr. D. asks the person next to me in class how their weekend was, and even though she did not ask me, I start thinking about what I did over the weekend. Another example could be receiving a prompt about the holidays and then deciphering a word out of the following letters:
nitels
***
You may actually find the word: Tinsel
***
Implicit emotional conditioning is classically conditioned emotional responses. They can be associated/paired with stimuli, such as smells or sounds (like songs that suddenly transport you to a different moment in time…).
400
Identify and describe some parts of the brain that are involved in memory.
What is...
Amygdala is involved with emotional processing, such as with fear and aggression. Memory storage is influenced by stress hormones. Also involved in memory consolidation (New learning —> LTM), and when an event is emotionally arousing, information is encoded at a deeper level.
Hippocampus: This area is involved in recognition and spatial memory. This area assigns memories meaning and connects them with other memories.
Cerebellum and the Prefrontal Cortex: These areas are involved in implicit memories, such as with procedural memory and classical conditioning. In one study it was found that when engaged in semantic encoding, the left inferior prefrontal cortex had increased activation compared to just doing a superficial encoding task, like looking at the shape of a letter.
400
Define the "sin" of source misattribution.
What is...
Source misattribution is one of the three categories of memory distortion. This concerns when we wrongfully attribute one source of information to someone, but in reality, it came from someone else.
400
I want you to tell me what the US, UR, CS, CR, and NS are in this (mostly) true example below:
A year ago or so, I took Dr. D. for PSY 405 which, unironically, was about Learning. As she went over different response behaviors, and as I was deeply involved in taking notes from lecture, she suddenly kicked her desk. Hard. I immediately had an orienting response to the noise and was startled, at first thinking something fell before slowly realizing that I was a demonstration for a reflexive response (startle response).
It was a very funny moment, and admittedly, it's because of her I am much more theatrical when I tutor other students.
However, here is where we can put in some creative, fictional details to help with diagramming. Let's assume that the "fear" I felt from the loud noise, perhaps I start feeling when I see Dr. D. walk in the classroom (okay, sure, you can say the classroom also makes me associate it with the original event, but let's just make it simple here and not overcomplicate this...).
Have fun with diagramming.
What is...
UCS: Loud noise
UR: Fear (or startle response).
CS/NS: Dr. Diliberto
CR: Fear/Anxiety (actually, it would probably be more anxiety and NOT fear since some responses elicited by the CS are not the same as the original UR; but again, I will try to keep this simple).
Diagramming it would look like this:
Loud Noise (US) --> Fear/Anxiety (UR)
Dr. Diliberto (NS) + Loud Noise (US) --> Fear/Anxiety (UR)
Through repeated pairings, this would become:
Dr. Diliberto (CS) --> Fear/Anxiety (CR)
*This was a one-time hilarious experience, but you could counter that this would likely not happen repeatedly enough to get paired; or even be of magnitude as an event for me to even associate Dr. D. with anxiety of that way. Or maybe I would just get used to it if she did it often. Good points, but again, don’t we all like a vivid, somewhat true example? I hate ripping from the textbook, admittedly.
400
These next set of problems will concern identifying if an example describes a schedule of reinforcement (Fixed Ratio-FR; Fixed Interval--FI; Variable Ratio--VR; Variable Interval--VI).
I will be very nice and leave the definitions here for your reference as to help identify each example.
Fixed Ratio: Reinforcement is delivered after a predictable number of responses. The number of responses between reinforcements is unchanging.
Fixed Interval: Reinforcement is delivered at predictable time intervals. The amount of time between reinforcements is unchanging.
Variable Ratio: Reinforcement is delivered after an unpredictable number of responses on average. The number of responses changes.
Variable Interval: Reinforcement is delivered at unpredictable time intervals on average. The time between reinforcements changes.
**Helpful Hint: Ratio = (Number of...) Responses. Think of these as two Rs.
Interval = time.**
PROBLEM:
Your Dad has an old mower. He never knows which "pull" will make it start.
What is... Variable ratio?
We are focusing here on Dad's responses on pulling the mower to make it start. Since he doesn't know which pull will make it start, we can assume he is doing this for an unpredictable number of times here--which would not be the same for each time he yanks the mower.
500
Define Levels of Processing.
What is...
The deeper you think about something, the better you are able to remember it?
500
The difference between Memory Construction versus Memory Reconstruction.
What is...
Memory Construction: Formulation of new memories
Reconstruction: Process of bringing up old memories.
500
Define the "sin" of bias.
What is...
Bias concerns memories distorted by current beliefs. There are different types of biases that we experience with this: stereotypical/gender stereotypes; hindsight bias (the "Oh, I knew it ALL along" bias), and egocentric bias (conflating actions in the past that you did to make it seem like a bigger deal than it actually was; exaggeration of the past).
500
Define higher-order conditioning.
What is...
The pairing of an already-established conditioned stimulus with a neutral stimulus that then elicits the conditioned response.
Remember, it is very difficult to achieve more than second-order conditioning.
Diagramming it is not too bad either. If you know how to diagram with respondent/classical conditioning, then you are just adding a second step to that process.
500
Fixed Ratio: Reinforcement is delivered after a predictable number of responses. The number of responses between reinforcements is unchanging.
Fixed Interval: Reinforcement is delivered at predictable time intervals. The amount of time between reinforcements is unchanging.
Variable Ratio: Reinforcement is delivered after an unpredictable number of responses on average. The number of responses changes.
Variable Interval: Reinforcement is delivered at unpredictable time intervals on average. The time between reinforcements changes.
**Helpful Hint: Ratio = (Number of...) Responses. Think of these as two Rs.
Interval = time.**
PROBLEM:
Your aunt sells real estate and earns a 5 percent commission for each house that she sells.
What is... Fixed ratio?
Pretty straightforward here. Number of responses pretty much is each time a house is sold, and she earns that commission from it. It stays the same. This is fixed ratio.
600
Identify in the examples below what kind of memory interference is being described.
1. I am trying to log into my computer, but it just will not budge. I changed the password to something else, and I keep putting in the old password and don't remember what the new one was!
2. I cannot remember my phone number before the one I have now. I am sure I was able to recall it quite nicely, but with the new number I have had (for years), memory of this one interferes with my memory of my last one.
1. Proactive interference.
This is a type of interference where old information/knowledge hinders the ability to learn new information. In this case, I cannot remember the password to my computer because the old password is impeding my ability to remember the new one.
2. Retroactive interference. When information that you just learned recently interferes with the ability to recall older information.
600
Define the "sin" of suggestibility
What is...
A type of memory distortion that occurs when given leading questions or cues from others that can lead to the creation of false memories.
600
Diagram the example below (hint: it is higher-order conditioning).
The caveat here is that this is an intro class, so I am actually not too sure what you could be doing on the test. Maybe you will come up with your own example, maybe you will just have to identify components of an example (What is the CS, what is the US?), or even know the differences between regular old classical conditioning and higher-order conditioning.
EXAMPLE: Imagine I had a friend who betrayed me, perhaps by breaking my trust. Before this happened, I recall we had a dinner together where we bonded over our shared enjoyment of a particular band. After experiencing the betrayal, I feel very nauseous whenever I see this person. Similarly, hearing any song from that band we both enjoyed makes me feel sick.
What is...
Feelings of betrayal (UCS) --> Nauseous (UR)
Friend (CS/NS) + Feelings of betrayal (UCS) --> Nauseous (UR)
Friend (CS) --> Nauseous (CR)
Song/Band we both liked (second-order stimulus) + Friend (CS) --> Nauseous
Song/Band we both liked --> Nauseous
*The reason this is an example of higher-order conditioning is because of the previous learning history with associating feelings of betrayal with the friend to the point it makes me feel queasy to see them. We both liked the same band or maybe some songs of that specific band and whenever I heard their music shuffle on my playlist, I immediately paused it and could not listen to it without thinking of the friend. Because of the initial pairing with the friend, betrayal, and associating the song with the friend, I also feel pretty sick listening to a band I once really liked.
600
Fixed Ratio: Reinforcement is delivered after a predictable number of responses. The number of responses between reinforcements is unchanging.
Fixed Interval: Reinforcement is delivered at predictable time intervals. The amount of time between reinforcements is unchanging.
Variable Ratio: Reinforcement is delivered after an unpredictable number of responses on average. The number of responses changes.
Variable Interval: Reinforcement is delivered at unpredictable time intervals on average. The time between reinforcements changes.
**Helpful Hint: Ratio = (Number of...) Responses. Think of these as two Rs.
Interval = time.**
PROBLEM:
The health inspector comes at various times to check to see if the restaurant where you are working is clean and sanitary.
What is... Variable Interval?
This is on a VI schedule because we are (1) looking at time here and (2) it is unpredictable. The health inspector comes in at various points, but you never know when that exactly is.
700
Tell me the differences between recall, recognition, and relearning.
What is...
Recall: Bring something to mind without any cues. This is like getting an essay question and having to write an answer in without any clues from the question itself.
Recognition: It is a process of comparison. You are identifying information you learned prior and comparing it with something else or something new. Think of facial recognition. If I showed you in one trial of an experiment 20 faces which you then studied, and at test, I show you 10 new faces and 10 old faces (from first trial), this involves a process of recognition as you are comparing the stimuli to what you previously learned. Was this a face I have seen before? Do I recognize this face?
Relearning: Learning information that you previously learned. For me, I do this often as a TA, particularly with you guys (PSY 101). It has been over three years since I was in your shoes, BUT when I look at my old notes and follow along with your textbook, I am learning at a much faster rate than I would have if I were just encountering this information for the first time. I am able to quickly get back into topics I have not thought of in forever, such as with social psychology with implicit attitudes, the IAT (implicit attitude test), Milgram experiment, Stanford Prison Experiment, etc.
700
Define the "sin" of persistence (interference).
What is...
The inability to forget undesirable memories no matter how hard you try.
700
Fixed Ratio: Reinforcement is delivered after a predictable number of responses. The number of responses between reinforcements is unchanging.
Fixed Interval: Reinforcement is delivered at predictable time intervals. The amount of time between reinforcements is unchanging.
Variable Ratio: Reinforcement is delivered after an unpredictable number of responses on average. The number of responses changes.
Variable Interval: Reinforcement is delivered at unpredictable time intervals on average. The time between reinforcements changes.
**Helpful Hint: Ratio = (Number of...) Responses. Think of these as two Rs.
Interval = time.**
PROBLEM:
Your Dad buys your Mom flowers every year on their wedding anniversary.
What is... Fixed Interval?
This is on an FI schedule, because reinforcement is deliverated at predictable time intervals. We know an anniversary happens once a year, so the amount of time between reinforcements (mom gets flowers) is unchanging.
800
Fixed Ratio: Reinforcement is delivered after a predictable number of responses. The number of responses between reinforcements is unchanging.
Fixed Interval: Reinforcement is delivered at predictable time intervals. The amount of time between reinforcements is unchanging.
Variable Ratio: Reinforcement is delivered after an unpredictable number of responses on average. The number of responses changes.
Variable Interval: Reinforcement is delivered at unpredictable time intervals on average. The time between reinforcements changes.
**Helpful Hint: Ratio = (Number of...) Responses. Think of these as two Rs.
Interval = time.**
PROBLEM:
You make time to watch your favorite TV show every Monday night at 8 pm.
What is... Fixed Interval?
This is on an FI schedule because it occurs at a predictable interval and the amount of time that passes is unchanging. Your favorite TV show always happens at this time and this hour.
900
Fixed Ratio: Reinforcement is delivered after a predictable number of responses. The number of responses between reinforcements is unchanging.
Fixed Interval: Reinforcement is delivered at predictable time intervals. The amount of time between reinforcements is unchanging.
Variable Ratio: Reinforcement is delivered after an unpredictable number of responses on average. The number of responses changes.
Variable Interval: Reinforcement is delivered at unpredictable time intervals on average. The time between reinforcements changes.
**Helpful Hint: Ratio = (Number of...) Responses. Think of these as two Rs.
Interval = time.**
PROBLEM:
Frequent flyer program in which one gets a free flight after a specific number of miles are flown.
What is... Fixed Ratio?
1000
Fixed Ratio: Reinforcement is delivered after a predictable number of responses. The number of responses between reinforcements is unchanging.
Fixed Interval: Reinforcement is delivered at predictable time intervals. The amount of time between reinforcements is unchanging.
Variable Ratio: Reinforcement is delivered after an unpredictable number of responses on average. The number of responses changes.
Variable Interval: Reinforcement is delivered at unpredictable time intervals on average. The time between reinforcements changes.
**Helpful Hint: Ratio = (Number of...) Responses. Think of these as two Rs.
Interval = time.**
PROBLEM:
Checking your mailbox for mail which comes daily at 3 PM.
What is... Fixed Interval?