Random!
Give one example each of a categorical and a quantitative variable.
Quantitative: age
Frequency claim measures how often ONE measured variable occurs, while an association claims look at the relationship between TWO measured variables
What are the Big 4 validities?
Construct, statistical, internal, and external validity.
What does it mean to “operationalize” a variable?
To define exactly how a variable will be measured in a study.
Describe, in your own words, the difference between a measured & manipulated variable
Measured variable is observed naturally
Manipulated variable is CHANGED by the researcher
Name the three criteria for causality.
Covariance, temporal precedence, and internal validity.
What are the two validities that are important to prioritize across all claims?
Statistical & Construct Validities
Give examples of how “stress” could be operationalized in two different ways.
Self-report questionnaire vs. cortisol level measurement.
Laura Smith and Mike Jones wrote a journal article back in 2023. How should in-text citations appear for two authors?
(Smith & Jones, 2023).
If I ran a correlation as my statistical test, what type of claim am I making?
Association claim
Which validity is most important for experiments claiming causality?
Internal validity
What kind of variable is heart rate when used to measure anxiety?
A physiological operationalization of anxiety.
In your own words, explain what deception in a study is.
Deception is when researchers intentionally withhold or mislead participants about the true purpose of a study to prevent bias or influence on their behavior. It can involve giving false information, using a cover story, or omitting details — but it must be justified, cause no harm, and be explained afterward during debriefing.
Identify the type of claim: Children who eat breakfast regularly perform better on memory tests
Association claim.
What can limit the generalizability of a study? and what validity does generalizability refer to?
Limits: lack of diversity in sample, specific to one culture/ country, etc
Refers to external validity
Why is it important to operationalize variables before data collection?
It ensures consistency, replicability, and that everyone measures variables in the same way.
Read the following scenario and find 2 examples of deception:
A psychology researcher wants to study how authority figures influence honesty in test-taking behavior. Participants are told the purpose of the study is to examine “problem-solving and intelligence,” when in reality, the true purpose is to observe cheating behavior under authority pressure.
During the study, participants complete a challenging set of puzzles on a computer. The researcher then leaves the room, saying, “If you finish early, feel free to check your answers with the answer key on the desk.” The “answer key” is purposely left visible to create a situation where cheating is possible. Unbeknownst to participants, the computer records whether they access the answer key or not.
Afterward, participants are asked to rate how honest they believe they were during the task.
1.
Deception about the purpose: Participants were told the study was about intelligence and problem-solving, not honesty or cheating.
Deception in the setup: The researcher pretended to “accidentally” leave an answer key out, when in fact it was intentionally placed there to observe behavior.
“People who exercise more are less likely to experience depression.”
Can this claim be interpreted as causal? Explain your reasoning using the three criteria for causality.
Covariance: ✅ There’s a relationship — people who exercise more tend to report fewer depressive symptoms.
Temporal Precedence: ❌ It’s unclear which came first — exercising more, or feeling less depressed. It’s possible people who are already less depressed have more energy to exercise.
Internal Validity: ❌ Other factors (e.g., social support, physical health, or income) could influence both exercise and depression.
In your own words, explain the difference between external and internal validity.
Internal validity is about whether a study can confidently show that one variable caused changes in another — it’s all about ruling out alternative explanations.
External validity is about how well the study’s results generalize to other people, settings, or situations beyond the study itself.
How can poor operationalization threaten construct validity?
If a variable is poorly operationalized, it means the way it’s measured or manipulated does not truly capture the construct the researcher intends to study. This threatens construct validity, which is the degree to which a test or measure actually reflects the concept it’s supposed to represent.