Infancy and Toddlerhood
__________ is the least-developed of the newborn baby’s senses.
Vision
Four-year-old Jasmine is shown two identical tall glasses of water and agrees that they contain the same amount of liquid. When the liquid is poured into a short, wide container, she says that there is more water in the shorter container because it is “all spread out.” Jasmine is demonstrating a lack of understanding of __________.
Conservation
_____ is the degree to which morality is central to self-concept.
Moral Identity
The concept of a __________ is a culturally determined timetable for significant life events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement.
Social clock
Explain 3 factors that contribute to long life
Genetics: efficient immune system, few brain abnormalities
Health: diet, low substance use, exercise
Personality: optimism, independence, emotional security
Social support: close family bonds, happy marriage
Activities: Community involvement, stimulating work, learning
What period do the most rapid prenatal changes take place during? Give an example of at least one of these changes.
Embryonic Period or Period of the Embryo (Weeks 3–8)
Possible changes:
-Formation of embryonic disk. The nervous system and skin (ectoderm), muscles, skeleton, circulatory system, and other internal organs (mesoderm), and digestive system, lungs, urinary tract, and glands (endoderm)
-Formation of the neural tube or primitive spinal cord
-Heart begins to pump blood
-Muscles, backbone, ribs, and digestive tract appear
-Eyes, ears, nose, jaw, and neck form
-Internal organs are more distinct
-Embryos posture becomes more upright
-Production of neurons
What is the difference between self-concept and self-esteem? Give an example of a caregiver facilitating one of them.
-Self-concept: a set of attributes, abilities, attitudes, and values that an individual believes defines who he or she is (Warm and sensitive parent, Go from physical characteristics than to describing personality traits)
-Self-esteem: the judgments we make about our own worth and the feelings associated with those judgments (The patient was encouraged while offering information on how to succeed enthusiastically)
List 3 factors that influence the timing of puberty
Heredity, nutrition, exercise, weight gain (girls), physical health (mal-nutrition), poverty or low-SES, early family experiences
Research suggests that ______ intelligence increases steadily through middle adulthood, whereas ______ intelligence begins to decline in the twenties.
Crystallized; Fluid
Many physical changes in body growth occur over the first two years of life. Specifically, two trends in body proportions occur. Name these two trends.
Cephaloccaudal trend – from “head to tail” (During the prenatal period, the head develops more rapidly than the lower part of the body)
Proximodistal trend – from “near to far” (Growth proceeds from the center of the body outward. The head, chest, and trunk grow first – then the arms and legs – and finally the hands and feet.)
What is the sensorimotor stage, and when does it occur? Describe one change that occurs.
Infants explore and learn about the world through their senses and motor activities. It occurs in the first two years of life.
-Possible changes: reflexive schemes, circular reaction, intentional goal-directed behavior, object permanence, mental representations, imitation, problem-solving, symbolic understanding,
The common health problems during middle childhood include nutrition, obesity, vision and hearing, illnesses, and unintentional injuries. Describe some causes, consequences, and treatments of obesity.
Causes: heredity, environment (low SES), parental feeding practices/development of maladaptive eating habits
Consequences: lifelong health problems (heart disease, type 2 diabetes, stroke, etc), high BP, high cholesterol, etc. more social/emotional difficulties (low self-esteem, bullying, etc) higher likelihood of anxiety and other psychological disorders
Treatments: family-based interventions focusing on weight-related behaviors, schools can serve healthier meals, etc
The brain undergoes significant changes during adolescence, including the continued development of the __________, which is responsible for decision-making and impulse control.
Prefrontal Cortex
How does reproductive capacity change with age for both men and women?
Ideal during the twenties; declines with age
Fertility risks for women: Problems jump sharply at 35–44 years due to two factors: reduced number of ova and poor quality of ova
Fertility risks for men: Problems are gradual starting at age 35 due to three factors: decreased sperm volume, decreased motility, and increased percentage of abnormal sperm
What are Kohlberg's stages of moral understanding? Is his theory accurate?
-The Preconventional level (stage 1 and stage 2)
-The Conventional level (stage 3 and stage 4)
-The Postconventional or Principled level (stage 5 and stage 6)
Accuracy: Yes for the first 4 stages, but no for stages 5 and 6 as few people hit those stages
In the Strange Situation, Bernadette uses her mother as a secure base. When separated, Bernadette does not cry, but when her mother returns, Bernadette smiles and quickly crawls to her. Bernadette is demonstrating __________ attachment.
Secure
List the five general categories of peer acceptance.
Popular children (many positive votes and are well-liked)
Rejected children (many negative votes and are disliked)
Controversial children (receive many positive and negative votes, both liked and disliked)
Neglected children (children who are seldom mentioned either positively or negatively)
Average children (receive average numbers of positive and negative votes – ⅓ of children in a classroom)
What are some key factors that contribute to adolescent delinquency, and how can interventions help reduce its occurrence?
Factors: peer pressure, family conflict, low socioeconomic status, and a lack of positive role models.
Interventions that focus on strengthening family bonds, providing mentorship, and increasing access to education and extracurricular activities can help mitigate delinquent behaviors.
In response to the shortcomings of disengagement and activity theories, two more approaches are now used: continuity theory and socioemotional theory. Explain continuity theory.
Most aging adults strive to maintain a personal system – an identity and a set of personality dispositions, interests, roles, and skills – that promotes life satisfaction by ensuring consistency between their past and anticipated future
List all 5 concepts of death and explain 2 of them.
Nonfunctionality: All functions stop after death
Finality: Death is permanent and cannot be reversed. Once someone dies, they cannot come back to life.
Universality: Death happens to all living things. Every plant, animal, and human will eventually die; it’s a universal part of life.
Applicability: Death applies only to living things. Non-living things, like rocks or chairs, cannot "die" because they were never alive.
Causation: Death happens because of physical reasons, such as disease, injury, or old age. There is always a cause behind why a living thing dies.
Define social referencing. How do babies use it to gather information about the emotions of others?
-Actively seeking emotional information from a trusted person in an uncertain situation.
-Beginning at 8 to 10 months, infants engage in social referencing
-Many studies show that the caregiver’s emotional expression (happy, angry, or fearful) influences whether a 1-year-old will be wary of strangers, play with an unfamiliar toy, or cross the deep side of the visual cliff.
-As toddlers start to appreciate that others’ emotional reactions may differ from their own, social referencing allows them to compare their own and others’ assessments of events.
In emotional regulation, by age 10 most children shift between two general strategies for managing emotions. What are the 2 coping strategies and provide an example of each.
Problem-centered coping: Appraises situation as changeable, Identifies difficulty, Decides what to do (Anxiety about exam → go ask for help and study tips)
Emotion-centered coping: Uses when problem-centered coping does not work; Internal, private, and aimed at controlling distress when little can be done about the outcome (Anxiety about the exam → "there will be another test")
What are the four identity statuses? Give an example or describe one of them.
Identity foreclosure: high commitment, low exploration (“I've made a choice without thinking”)
Identity diffusion: low commitment, low exploration (“I do not know and I do not care”)
Identity achievement: high commitment, high exploration (“I thought about it and I know what I should do”)
Identity moratorium: low commitment, high exploration (“I am thinking about what I should do”)
What are the Big Five personality traits and how does each one of these traits change in adulthood?
OCEAN - Openness to experience, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism
Agreeableness and Conscientiousness INCREASE
Neuroticism DECLINES
Extraversion and Openness do not change or slightly decrease
List and Explain Kübler-Ross’s five coping strategies.
Denial: Refusing to believe or accept the reality of loss or change.
Anger: Feeling frustration or resentment about the loss, often directed at others or circumstances.
Bargaining: Trying to negotiate or make deals (often with a higher power) to reverse or lessen the impact of the loss.
Depression: Experiencing deep sadness, hopelessness, or withdrawal in response to the loss.
Acceptance: Coming to terms with the reality of the situation and finding a way to move forward.