Foundations
How is psychology different from other fields like history, literature, and philosophy?
Psychology relies on scientific methods to gather and analyze data, while other fields may rely more on interpretation, subjective experience, or philosophical reasoning.
Compare and contrast correlational studies with experimental studies.
Experimental research involves manipulating an independent variable and controlling for extraneous factors to establish cause-and-effect relationships. Correlational research examines relationships between variables but cannot determine causation due to the potential influence of confounding variables.
How does the movement of ions (sodium and potassium) across the neural membrane generate an action potential?
An action potential is generated when the neuron's membrane potential reaches a threshold, triggering the opening of voltage-gated ion channels. Sodium ions rush into the cell (depolarization), followed by potassium ions flowing out (repolarization). The refractory period prevents the immediate generation of another action potential, ensuring unidirectional signal transmission.
How do twin studies and adoption studies contribute to our understanding of the relative contributions of genetics and environment to human traits and behaviors?
Twin studies compare the similarity of identical twins (who share 100% of their genes) to fraternal twins (who share 50% of their genes) to estimate the heritability of traits. Adoption studies examine similarities between adopted children and their biological and adoptive parents to disentangle genetic and environmental influences.
How are the principles of functionalism influenced by evolutionary psychology?
Functionalism's emphasis on the adaptive purpose of behavior has informed evolutionary psychology's exploration of how behaviors contribute to survival and reproduction.
Explain the concept of the "third variable problem" and its implications for interpreting correlational research findings. Provide an example to illustrate your explanation.
The third variable problem refers to the possibility that an unmeasured variable (the "third variable") is responsible for the observed relationship between two variables. For example, a positive correlation between ice cream sales and drowning deaths could be explained by a third variable, such as hot weather, which influences both variables.
Describe the electrochemical forces that contribute to the establishment and maintenance of the resting membrane potential.
The resting membrane potential is maintained by the unequal distribution of ions (sodium and potassium) via diffusion and electrostatic pressure, the selective permeability of the membrane to these ions, and the sodium-potassium pump, which actively transports ions to maintain the concentration gradients.
Discuss the concept of gene-environment interaction and provide an example of how genetic predisposition and environmental factors can interact to influence a specific trait or behavior.
Gene-environment interaction refers to the interplay between genetic factors and environmental experiences in shaping an individual's traits or behaviors. For example, individuals with a genetic predisposition for depression may be more likely to develop the disorder if they experience stressful life events.
How did psychophysics impact the development of psychological science?
Psychophysics pioneered the use of experimental methods to study the relationship between physical stimuli and subjective experience, providing a foundation for psychology's empirical approach and establishing a link between the physical and mental worlds.
Evaluate the circumstances under which researchers might choose to use methods other than experiments, such as observational studies or case studies, and describe the trade-offs involved in these choices.
Researchers might use non-experimental methods when it is unethical or impractical to manipulate variables, when studying rare phenomena, or when seeking to generate hypotheses for future research. Trade-offs include limited control over variables and potential biases, making it difficult to establish causal relationships.
What does it mean for a neurotransmitter to results in EPSPs or IPSPs? Which neurotransmitters are responsible for EPSPs vs IPSPs?
Neurotransmitters can be excitatory (e.g., glutamate), inhibitory (e.g., GABA), or modulatory (e.g., dopamine, serotonin). Excitatory neurotransmitters increase the likelihood of an action potential, whereas inhibitory neurotransmitters decrease the likelihood of an action potential.
What are the implications of research on the heritability of intelligence for educational practices and social policies?
Research suggests that intelligence is influenced by both genetic and environmental factors. This has implications for education, emphasizing the importance of providing enriching environments and opportunities for all individuals to reach their full potential, regardless of genetic predisposition.
What are two specific examples of how psychological research has been instrumental in promoting social justice and challenging discriminatory practices throughout history?
Psychological research has played a crucial role in dismantling harmful stereotypes (Leta Hollingworth), challenging segregation (Mamie Clark), and promoting sexual equality and inclusivity (Evelyn Hooker).
What factors of a research study impact its generalizability?
Generalizability depends on the representativeness of the sample, which is influenced by sample size, sampling methods (e.g., random sampling), and the characteristics of the participants (e.g., age, gender, culture). Larger, randomly selected samples that are diverse and representative of the target population increase the generalizability of findings.
How do "split-brain" patients help us understand how the brain functions?
Split-brain patients reveal that each hemisphere has specialized functions and controls the opposite side of the body, highlighting the importance of the corpus callosum for communication between the hemispheres.
Is it ethical to use genetic information in predicting and potentially intervening in human behavior, particularly in the context of criminal justice? Why or why not?
Ethical concerns include potential for discrimination, stigmatization, and violation of privacy. It's crucial to balance the potential benefits of using genetic information with the need to protect individual rights and avoid deterministic interpretations of behavior.
What are some of the challenges faced by psychologists when applying research findings to real-world problems?
Challenges include translating research into effective interventions, ensuring ethical practices, addressing cultural and individual differences, and navigating the dynamic nature of human behavior and societal change.
What is the "replication crisis" and how does it impact the reliability and validity of scientific findings? What are two solutions to the "replication crisis?"
The replication crisis refers to the difficulty in replicating many published research findings, raising concerns about the reliability and validity of psychological research. Potential solutions include greater emphasis on replication studies, open science practices (sharing data and materials), and improved methodological rigor.
What is the purpose of using brain imaging techniques like fMRI and PET scans? What might be a limitation of these techniques?
Brain imaging techniques allow researchers to visualize brain activity and identify regions associated with specific behaviors or cognitive processes. Limitations include its limited temporal resolution, and potential for over-interpretation of findings.