A
what is shaping?
guiding behavior toward a desired goal by reinforcing successive approximations—small steps that get closer to the final behavior.
Example: To teach a dog to roll over, first reward it for lying down, then for turning partway, and finally for completing the roll.
what is classical conditioning?
learning an association between two stimuli. Something that originally meant nothing starts triggering a learned response because it has been associated with something meaningful.
what is operant conditioning?
Operant conditioning is learning in which behavior becomes stronger or weaker depending on its consequences.
what is memory?
Persistence of learning over time through encoding, storage, & retrieval of info
how can mnemonic devices be used to enhance memory?
TOOL, TRICK OR STRATEGE TO HELP YOU REMEMBER A LOT OF INFO
-CHUNKING
Describe Pavlov’s dog and bell study
- Ivan Pavlov: The name most closely associated with classical conditioning.
- Behaviorism: Focuses on observable behavior and seeks objectivity, rather than explaining behavior by referring to mental processes.
Pavlov was a physiologist studying digestion. He noticed that dogs began salivating before food arrived. He investigated how a previously neutral sound could become associated with food.
how much information most people can hold in their working memory?
•Capacity: 7 +/- 2 pieces of information (5-9)
what is chunking?
divide (something) into chunks
memory trick
define, and differentiate the two principles of reinforcement
- Reinforcement increases the likelihood that a behavior will happen again.
- Punishment decreases the likelihood that a behavior will happen again.
what is working memory?
Newer conceptualization of short-term memory
Keep new info active in consciousness & relate it to older info
With rehearsal, info may be stored in long-term memory
what is the difference between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation?
INTRINSIC: Doing something for its own sake
e.g. “I go to work because I love my job.”
EXTRINSIC: Doing something to get rewards or avoid punishment
e.g. “I go to work so I’ll get paid & won’t get fired.”
what is the difference between learning & associative learning?
Learning: A relatively permanent change in an organism's behavior due to experience.
Associative learning: Learning to associate two stimuli or events so that one helps you anticipate the other.
- Learning = experience changes behavior.
- Associative = association, or connecting two things.
what is the difference between classical and operant conditioning? (main definition, main person, example)
Classical conditioning
(Pavlov, Associates two stimuli, Learns a response to a stimulus, Example: Feeling hungry when hearing a familiar food-related sound )
Operant conditioning (Skinner, Associates behavior with consequences, Learns from what follows an action, Example: Studying more after receiving a good grade)
what are the three parts of the information processing model?
Encoding: putting info into memory
Storage: retaining it over time
Retrieval: bringing it back out
what is the difference in generalization and discrimination? (and define)
Generalization = similar things
A learned response spreads to similar stimuli. Example: Someone bitten by one dog becomes afraid of many dogs.
Discrimination = distinguish
A person responds differently to different stimuli. Example: A fire in a fireplace feels cozy, but a fire on the stove feels dangerous.
what is the difference between reinforcement and punishment? AND name the 4 types.
-Reinforcement increases the likelihood that a behavior will happen again.
- Punishment decreases the likelihood that a behavior will happen again.
- Positive = add something.
- Negative = remove something.
(positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, positive punishment, negative punishment)
what are the four major types of classical conditioning?
(UCS) Unconditioned Stimulus
Something that naturally triggers a response without learning. Dog example: Food
(UCR) Unconditioned Response
The natural, unlearned reaction to the UCS. Dog example: Salivating to food
(CS) Conditioned Stimulus
A previously neutral stimulus that triggers a learned response after conditioning. Dog example: Bell or tone after it has been paired with food
(CR) Conditioned Response
The learned reaction to the conditioned stimulus. Dog example: Salivating to the bell alone
WHAT IS acquisition , extinction and spontaneous recovery?
1. Acquisition = learning begins
The bell is repeatedly paired with food, and the dog learns the association.
Memory trick: Acquire means gain or obtain.
2. Extinction = learned response weakens
The bell sounds repeatedly without food, so the dog's salivation to the bell decreases.
Memory trick: Extinction means the response fades. The original learning is not necessarily erased.
3. Spontaneous recovery = response returns
After a rest period, the bell may trigger salivation again, even after extinction.
Memory trick: Spontaneous means it returns on its own
what is the difference between automatic and effortful processing?
Automatic: Time, Frequency, Well-learned information
Effortful: Rehearsed, Overlearning
how did Watson test the principles of classic conditioning with Little Albert?
John B. Watson tested whether emotional responses could be classically conditioned.
- Little Albert initially showed no fear of a white rat.
- The rat was paired with a frightening, loud noise.
- Albert developed a fear response to the rat.
- His fear also generalized to similar stimuli.
in ENCODING what is the difference in visual, acoustic, and semantic encoding?
VISUAL- IMAGES
ACOUSTIC-SOUND
SEMANTIC- MEANING
in RETRIEVAL what is the difference between recall, recognition, and relearning?
Recall: Retrieve info not in conscious awareness
e.g. fill in the blank/essay test
Recognition: Identify info when it’s presented
e.g. multiple choice test
Relearning: Speed of learning forgotten info again
e.g. re-taking a course is easier
what are the two types of sensory memories?
iconic (VISUAL) and echoic (AUDITORY)
(2-part question) what are the errors in encoding and in memory construction?
ENCODING: Some things are never encoded, We encode functional/useful info, Eyewitness memory inaccurate when weapon is used, Selective Attention, “Weapon focus”, Pay attention to weapon instead of face
MEMORY CONSTRUCTION: Misinformation Effect, Memories may be altered after exposure to subtle misinformation
what are the four types of reinforcement schedules AND does acquisition and extinction happen quickly or slowly
Fixed-ratio schedule: Every time a behavior is performed, it is reinforced Or: Reward for doing something a set # of times e.g. recycling cans for $, reward for every 10 cans
Acquisition: Fast Extinction: Fast
variable-ratio schedule: Behavior is reinforced, but not every time e.g. gambling
Acquisition: Fast Extinction: Slow
fixed-interval schedule: Reinforcement after a set amount of time e.g. Payday every two weeks
Acquisition: Slow Extinction: Fast
variable-interval schedule: Reinforcement at varying times e.g. checking stores for sales, pop quiz
Acquisition: Slow Extinction: Slow