Research Methods
What is an example of a confounding variable in an experiment studying the effects of sleep on memory?
Example answer: the students' caffeine intake
Give an example of a critical period in early human development.
Language development : infancy is a critical period for learning a first language.
What reinforcement schedule is at play when a student checks their phone randomly and occasionally gets a message?
Variable interval (messages arrive at unpredictable times).
What’s an example of intrinsic motivation in academic settings?
Example: Student studies a subject because they find it interesting, not just for a grade.
After a heated argument, Sam impulsively yells and throws his phone. Freud would say this behavior was driven by this part of the personality.
The id
Which research method would best explore how college students cope with stress over a semester?
Longitudinal study: follows the same students over a semester to see changes in coping.
How might a toddler show signs of secure attachment?
The child is distressed when the caregiver leaves but is easily comforted when they return.
Describe how classical conditioning could explain someone’s fear of dogs.
Bitten by a dog (UCS), feeling fear (UCR); dog (CS) now triggers fear (CR).
How might arousal theory explain why some students study better in a coffee shop?
Moderate noise increases arousal to the optimal level for focus.
A 19th-century doctor claims he can predict someone's honesty and intelligence by feeling bumps on their skull. This outdated and debunked practice is known as:
phrenology
A psychologist uses random assignment in a study. What kind of validity is this helping to improve?
Internal validity (ensures groups are comparable).
Describe how Erikson’s stage of ‘identity vs. role confusion’ might play out in high school.
Example: A high schooler tries out different clubs and friend groups to “find themselves.”
What’s the difference between positive and negative reinforcement? Give an example of each.
Example:
Positive reinforcement: Give a child candy for doing homework.
Negative reinforcement: Allow a child to skip chores if homework is done.
Positive give them something, negative take something away, reinforcement = want some kind of behavior to continue or increase
Describe a situation where drive-reduction theory explains human behavior.
Example: Eating when hungry to reduce physical discomfort.
Alex gets frustrated quickly, speaks passionately, and often changes their mind. According to Wilhelm Wundt’s reinterpretation of the four temperaments, Alex would likely be classified as:
choleric
What is one limitation of a case study method when applied to rare psychological conditions?
Results may not generalize to others (low external validity).
What’s a real-world example of discontinuous development?
Example: Learning to walk, happens in distinct stages (sitting up, crawling, walking), not gradually.
How could you use operant conditioning to encourage a child to do chores?
Example: Reward completed chores with extra playtime or praise.
How could Maslow’s hierarchy of needs apply to college student life?
Example: Food/housing (physiological), making friends (belonging), striving for good grades (esteem).
When a 19th-century doctor treats a patient’s depression by encouraging them to talk about childhood trauma instead of prescribing herbs or leeches, they are aligning with which early movement in mental health?
Emmanuel Movement
Design a simple experiment to test whether background music affects reading comprehension.
Example: Randomly assign students to listen to music or silence while reading, then test comprehension.
What’s an example of how assimilation and accommodation might both be used when a child learns that not all four-legged animals are dogs?
Assimilation: The child calls a cow a “dog.”
Accommodation: Learns cows are a new category and adjusts the mental schema for "dog."
Explain latent learning with an example from school life.
Example: Student learns the school layout by observation, not use, and shows knowledge during a fire drill, they’re able to get out despite not having shown that they know the school layout in the past
Compare and contrast the roles of emotion and motivation in sports performance.
Emotion—nerves before a game; Motivation—practice to improve performance.
A client believes they are sad because of an imbalance in their bodily fluids and asks about their "black bile" levels. This outdated belief comes from the theory of this ancient thinker.
Hippocrates or Galen