Metaphors
True or False: Metaphors are not common
Answer: False
Metaphors are extremely common and often systematic!
True or False: Being multilingual is more common than being bilingual
Answer: True!
Multilingual make up to 60% of the population around the world
What is a word with related meanings called?
Polysemy
What is a form/function pairing called?
A construction
So constructions can be as small as a morpheme (like ing (form) is used to indicate helping verbs (function) or as a large as partially filled idioms (walk a mile in my ____ [shoes/sneakers/heels/flip flops…]
Accessibility of memory traces is negatively influenced by:
Interference from competitor, Cognitive load
True or False: Metaphors contain less information than their literal counterparts.
Answer: False
Remember metaphors contain more information than literal sentences, which is why they are used so frequently. For example take the phrase “I didn’t understand” versus “I was lost.” I was lost, which indicates the person at one point was trying, probably got frustrated, and then couldn’t figure out how to get back on “path.” Whereas “I didn’t understand” does not elicit nearly as much information.
What did trying to teach chimps human language (ASL) teach us? (give 2 things)
Answer:
-words can be learned
-syntax is hard (if learned at all)
-it was really effortful
When do children tend to learn word meanings?
around 9-12 months
True or False: A lot of nouns can be defined by necessary and sufficient principles.
False
Accessibility of memory traces is positively influenced by:
Frequency, Cluster of related cases, Priming
True of False: There are no differences in metaphor comprehension between L1 and L2 speakers.
Answer: False
As discussed in lecture, metaphors tend to be more engaging for L1 speakers than L2 speakers. In addition to metaphors, Taboo phrases and scolding phrases are also less distracting to L2 speakers than L1.
Name 3 advantages of being younger to learning languages.
Answer:
Brain plasticity
Not analytical
Fewer inhibitions (usually)
Weaker group identity
Simplified input more likely
What is mutual exclusivity in word learning?
Assumes a new word gets a new label
True or False: Children receive reliable and direct feedback on learning grammar/language.
Anwer: False! Children often do not receive direct feedback from caregivers or guardians on language learning! Typically guardians do not explicitly correct their grammar. They tend to address the content (semantics) of a child instead. For example if a child says “I goed to the store tomorrow” a parent is more likely to reply “yes that’s right! We’re going to the store tomorrow” as opposed to “no we are going”.
What does a garden path sentence tell us about language processing?
Language processing is incremental!
A study we discussed in class used eyes as a method to measure the level of engagement. What was the methodology for this study?
Answer: pupil dilation
Name 3 advantages of being older to learning languages.
Learning capacity
Analytic ability
Pragmatic skills
Greater knowledge of L1
Real-world knowledge
What kinds of objects do children prioritize the shape bias for?
Solid object categories (like solid nouns)
True or False: Children are cautious generalizers and generalize less broadly than adults.
Answer: True!
Children are cautious generalizers
Good enough production is a trade off between what two things? Lose x to gain y.
X= accuracy, Y= speed
(in class) guacamole is made with artichokes (instead of avocados)
(another example) your majesty (instead of your honor)
Which area of the brain is more engaged when listening to metaphors?
Answer: Amygdala
What are two pre-requesites for human language?
Answer:
-interest in sharing joint attention
-the tendency to imitate for imitate’s sake
Why do children tend to learn meaning around 9-12 months?
Same age they begin to follow another’s gaze direction
Monitor adult reactions to objects and situations (social referencing)
Act on objects the way adults do (imitation)
General answer: This is known as “the social cognitive revolution” Tomasello (1995)
How do large language models SUPPORT the usage based approach to language? (give 3examples)
Shows how the statistics of the input can be derived from the input, shows how clusters are an important part of language, shows how co-occurrences shape our language, shows how we don't need pre-defined language rules to understand language, shows how flexibility is necessary
What factors play a role in binomial preference?
-Accessibility of individual words
-Type of meaning in individual terms
(Think: agentivity, importance, salience to speaker)