Substance Dependence
What is dependence
Inability to quit a self-destructive habit
What is major depression disorder
A more extreme condition lasting weeks at a time, during which the person experiences little interest, pleasure, or motivation
How is schizophrenia diagnosed
One must exhibit a prolonged deterioration of daily activities and some combination of hallucinations, delusions, disorganized speech and though, movement disorder, and loss of normal emotional responses and social behaviour.
The symptoms must include at least one of the first three (delusions, hallucinations, and disorganized speech and thought) and at least two of the five overall
Autism spectrum disorder used to be divided into what disorders
Asperger’s syndrome (milder form of autism)
Autism
Heroin was originally intended for what use
A “less dangerous” substitute that would satisfy the craving for morphine
What happens when addictive drug enters the brain
Addictive drugs increase the release of dopamine in nucleus accumbens, which is critical for attention and reinforcement
How does the antidepressant drug possibly help with depression
Prolonged use of antidepressants increase production of BDNF (brain-derived neurotrophic factor) that over a period of weeks leads to the birth of new neurons in the hippocampus, expansion of dendrites, and improved learning
Explain the three important symptoms of schizophrenia
Hallucinations (perceptions that do not correspond to anything in the real world)
Delusions (belief that someone holds strongly despite evidence against it)
Disorganized thoughts and speech (illogical, incoherent, distracted or tangential speech, as if they start speaking but quickly forget what they are trying to say; difficulty using abstract concepts)
What are the possible causes of autism
Genetic influence (depends on a combination of two or more genes; microdeletion of part of a chromosome)
Prenatal environment (mother has antibodies that attack the proteins of a developing brain)
People with which psychological disorder would not do well in the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test?
Schizophrenia
What are the common treatment plans to treat alcoholism
Alcoholics Anonymous (a self-help group of people who are trying to abstain from alcohol use and help others do the same)
Daily intake of disulfiram (alcoholics become sick if they have a drink and renews the decision of drinking)
Contingency management (practitioners monitor alcohol use by a Breathalyzer or urine sample; whenever the test shows no alcohol, an immediate reinforcement is provided)
What are some of the possible triggers/causes of depression
Stressful event (especially interpersonal stress)
Family history (genetic predisposition)
Inflammation (highly stressful experiences lead to increased release of cytokines that fight infection and produce inflammation; prolonged release of cytokines can lead to depression or other disorders)
What are the available treatments for schizophrenia
Antipsychotic drug
Atypical antipsychotic drugs
Cognitive therapy
What are the primary symptoms of autistic spectrum disorder
Impaired social relationships (little eye contact, little social contact)
Impaired communication (repetitive speech; no sustained conversations)
Stereotyped behaviours (repetitive movements such as flapping fingers)
When and whom would ECT be used on
For people with severe depression who failed to respond to antidepressant drugs
Patients with strong suicidal tendency (ECT has the advantage of rapid effect, often within a week)
What contributes to alcohol to develop into an overwhelming craving
Physical dependence: uses drug to reduce unpleasant withdrawal symptoms
Psychological dependence: strong desire for something without withdrawal symptoms
Relieve distress (drug helped to relieve withdrawal symptoms thus learnt its power to relieve distress)
Synaptic changes at brain areas that are important for motivation and attention (synapses learn to respond strongly to the additive substance and reminders of that, but decrease response to other reinforcers)
Explain how the different classes of antidepressant drugs work
Tricyclic drug (interfere with the axon’s ability to reabsorb dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin after releasing them)
Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (block reuptake of only serotonin)
Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (block the metabolic breakdown of dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin by the enzyme monoamine oxidase)
Describe the brain abnormalities observed in people with schizophrenia
Decreased gray matter in several brain areas
Slightly enlarged cerebral ventricles
Smaller than average neurons
Fewer than average synapses, especially in the prefrontal cortex (dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, control aspects of working memory)
Describe the brain abnormalities related to autism
Large heads and brains
More neurons but abnormal connections among them
Decreased number of neurons in the cerebellum
Alterations of neuron structure in the cerebral cortex
Explain the possible underlying cause of schizophrenia in relations to neurotransmitter activities
Excessive amount of dopamine activity typically produces hallucinations and delusions
The brain’s release of dopamine is regulated largely by glutamate; deficient glutamate release in the prefrontal cortex produces both the positive and negative symptoms of schizophrenia
Who are more vulnerable than others to develop alcoholism
Those with family history of alcoholism (genetic predisposition)
Those living in cultures which tolerates heavy drinking
Those who grew up in families marked by conflict, hostility, and inadequate parental supervision
Women who were sexually abused in childhood
Those who are depressed
Those who have difficulty estimating their own degree of intoxication
What are some possible treatments for MDD
Antidepressant medication (tricyclic drugs. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, monoamine oxidase inhibitors)
Cognitive therapy (change people’s thoughts of interpreting ambiguous situations to their own disadvantage to reinterpret events in a more positive way; encourage a more active life)
Electroconvulsive shock therapy (brief electrical shock administered across the patient’s head to induce a convulsion similar to epilepsy)
Exercise (nonstrenuous exercise increases neuron formation in the hippocampus)
Regular seafood intake (omega-3 fatty acids help to relieve depression)
What are some of the causes of schizophrenia
Genetics (high heritability)
Prenatal environment that unfavourably affect fetus’ brain development
Copy number variants (deletions and duplications of tiny parts of a chromosome)
Neurodevelopmental hypothesis (nervous system impairments that develop before birth or in early childhood, because of either genetics or early environment, especially prenatal environment)
Season-of-birth effect (a person born in the winter or early spring is slightly more likely to develop schizophrenia than a person born at other times; possibly relates to the fact that influenza and other epidemics are common in the fall and if the mother catches the virus during the first or second trimester of pregnancy, her elevated activity of immune system can impair the fetus’ brain development)
Apart from the primary symptoms, what are the other symptoms of individuals with autism
Fluctuations of temperature regulation
Insensitivity to pain
Decreased tendency to become dizzy after spinning with the lights on
Focus attention narrowly on one item to the exclusion of everything else
Below average performance on some intellectual tasks, and above average (sometimes way above average) on other tasks
What made methadone possible to be used as a “safer” substitute for opiates
Methadone is chemically similar to morphine and heroin.
It can be taken as a pill and enter the bloodstream gradually and departs gradually as compared to morphine or heroin that would be digested without reaching the brain if taken orally.
Since it can be taken as a pill, it does not produce the “rush” associated with injected opiates, and therefore does not strongly interfere with important behaviours.
Methadone also satisfies the craving and block heroin or morphine from reaching the same receptor.