2.1
objective and verifiable observation, established using evidence collected through empirical research
facts
theory
well-developed set of ideas that propose an explanation for observed phenomena
observation of behavior in its natural setting
naturalistic observation
overall group of individuals that the researchers are interested in
population
number from -1 to +1, indicating the strength and direction of the relationship between variables, and usually represented by r
correlation coefficient
seeing relationships between two things when in reality no such relationship exists
illusory correlation
personal judgments, conclusions, or attitudes that may or may not be accurate
opinions
a testable prediction about how the world will behave if an idea is correct, often worded as an if-then statement
hypotheses
when observations may be skewed to align with observer expectations
observer bias
method of research using past records or data sets to answer various research questions, or to search for interesting patterns or relationships
archival research
two variables change in the same direction, both becoming either larger or smaller
positive correlation
tendency to ignore evidence that disproves ideas or beliefs
confirmation bias
grounded in objective, tangible evidence that can be observed time and time again, regardless of who is observing
empirical
able to be disproven by experimental results
falsifiable
measure of agreement among observers on how they record and classify a particular event
inter-rater reliability
studies in which the same group of individuals is surveyed or measured repeatedly over an extended period of time
longitudinal research
two variables change in different directions, with one becoming larger as the other becomes smaller; a negative correlation is not the same thing as no correlation
negative correlation
group designed to answer the research question; experimental manipulation is the only difference between the experimental and control groups, so any differences between the two are due to experimental manipulation rather than chance
experimental group
conclusions are drawn from observations
inductive reasoning
observational research study focusing on one or a few people
clinical or case study
list of questions to be answered by research participants—given as paper-and-pencil questionnaires, administered electronically, or conducted verbally—allowing researchers to collect data from a large number of people
surveys
compares multiple segments of a population at a single time
cross sectional research
changes in one variable cause the changes in the other variable; can be determined only through an experimental research design
cause and effect relationship
serves as a basis for comparison and controls for chance factors that might influence the results of the study—by holding such factors constant across groups so that the experimental manipulation is the only difference between groups
control group
results are predicted based on a general premise
deductive reasoning
inferring that the results for a sample apply to the larger population
generalizing
subset of individuals selected from the larger population
sample
reduction in number of research participants as some drop out of the study over time
attrition
unanticipated outside factor that affects both variables of interest, often giving the false impression that changes in one variable causes changes in the other variable, when, in actuality, the outside factor causes changes in both variables
confounding variable
description of what actions and operations will be used to measure the dependent variables and manipulate the independent variables
operational definition