Nervous System
What are the two main divisions of the nervous system?
The two main divisions of the nervous system are the Central Nervous System (CNS) and the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS).
What is stress?
Stress is a physiological and psychological response to demands or challenges perceived as threatening or overwhelming. It involves the activation of the body's stress response systems, leading to changes in behavior, cognition, and physiology.
Define learning in psychological terms
In psychological terms, learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge that results from experience or practice. It involves acquiring new skills, information, or behaviors and can occur through various processes such as observation, imitation, or direct experience.
What are the three stages of memory?
The three stages of memory are encoding (the process of converting information into a form that can be stored), storage (the maintenance of encoded information over time), and retrieval (the process of accessing and using stored information).
What is neuroplasticity?
Neuroplasticity, also known as brain plasticity or neural plasticity, is the brain's ability to reorganize itself by forming new neural connections throughout life. This ability allows the brain to adapt to new experiences, learn new information, and recover from injuries.
Define the role of the central nervous system.
The Central Nervous System (CNS) processes and interprets sensory information, coordinates and controls bodily functions and movements, and is involved in higher cognitive functions such as thinking, memory, and emotions.
Describe the difference between acute and chronic stress.
Acute stress is a short-term response to immediate threats or challenges, which can be beneficial for quick reactions. Chronic stress, however, is long-term and results from persistent stressors, which can lead to negative health effects such as anxiety, depression, and cardiovascular issues.
What is classical conditioning?
Classical conditioning is a learning process in which an initially neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus, leading to a learned response. This was demonstrated by Ivan Pavlov’s experiments with dogs, where a neutral stimulus (bell) was paired with an unconditioned stimulus (food) to produce a conditioned response (salivation).
Explain the difference between short-term and long-term memory in terms of encoding, storage and retrieval
Short-Term Memory (STM):
Long-Term Memory (LTM):
Describe one example of how neuroplasticity can be observed in the brain.
One example of neuroplasticity is the phenomenon of "functional reorganization." For instance, after a stroke, other areas of the brain can take over functions that were previously managed by the damaged region. Functional MRI (fMRI) studies often show that patients recovering from stroke can develop new neural pathways that compensate for lost functions.
What is the function of neurotransmitters in the nervous system?
Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers that transmit signals across synapses between neurons. They play a crucial role in regulating various functions such as mood, arousal, and muscle contractions by enabling communication between neurons.
What physiological changes occur in the body during a stress response?
During a stress response, the body undergoes several physiological changes, including the release of stress hormones like cortisol and adrenaline, increased heart rate and blood pressure, heightened alertness, and the mobilization of energy resources to handle the perceived threat.
Explain the 3 phase model of operant conditioning and provide an example.
The three-phase model of operant conditioning illustrates how antecedents set up the conditions for behavior, the behavior itself is the response, and the consequences affect the future probability of the behavior occurring again. This model is foundational in understanding how behaviors are acquired and maintained through reinforcement and punishment.
What is the role of the hippocampus in memory formation?
The hippocampus is essential for forming new declarative (explicit) memories, such as facts and events. It helps in encoding and consolidating these memories from short-term to long-term storage and is involved in spatial navigation.
How does neuroplasticity play a role in recovery from brain injuries?
Neuroplasticity aids in recovery from brain injuries by allowing other parts of the brain to compensate for damaged areas. For example, after a traumatic brain injury, the brain can reorganize its neural networks to regain lost functions, such as movement or speech, through rehabilitation and therapy.
Differentiate between the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems.
The Sympathetic Nervous System (SNS) prepares the body for "fight-or-flight" responses during stressful or emergency situations by increasing heart rate, dilating pupils, and redirecting blood flow to muscles. The Parasympathetic Nervous System (PNS) promotes "rest-and-digest" functions, conserving energy, slowing the heart rate, and enhancing digestion and relaxation.
Discuss one psychological theory of stress.
The Transactional Model of Stress, proposed by Richard Lazarus and Susan Folkman, suggests that stress is a result of the interaction between an individual and their environment. The model emphasizes the role of cognitive appraisal in determining whether a situation is perceived as stressful and the coping strategies used to manage it.
Outline the 4 types of consequences using an example for each
Differentiate between the hippocampus, the neocortex, the amygdala, the cerebellum and the basal ganglia in memory formation and storage
Discuss the impact of learning on neuroplasticity.
Learning promotes neuroplasticity by strengthening existing neural connections and forming new ones. Activities such as acquiring new skills, practicing a new language, or engaging in cognitive exercises stimulate the brain to reorganize and adapt, enhancing cognitive abilities and memory.
Explain the role of the Gut-Brain Axis in psychological functioning
The Gut-Brain Axis highlights the interconnectedness of gut health and psychological functioning. Through the modulation of neurotransmitters, immune responses, and neural pathways, the gut microbiota plays a significant role in influencing mood, behavior, and mental health. Disruptions in this axis can contribute to psychological disorders, while maintaining gut health offers potential therapeutic benefits for mental wellbeing.
Discuss the explanatory power of the GAS model in describing stress
The General Adaptation Syndrome provides a comprehensive framework for understanding how the body responds to stress in a staged manner. Its explanatory power lies in its ability to describe the physiological changes during different stress stages, explain the health consequences of chronic stress, and guide stress management strategies. While foundational, the GAS model is complemented by contemporary research that enriches its explanation of stress responses and their implications for health.
Describe the concept of observational learning and describe each of it's stages
Observational learning involves:
Albert Bandura’s theory of observational learning underscores the importance of social influences and cognitive processes in learning. It highlights that learning does not always require direct experience; observing and imitating others can be a powerful way to acquire new skills and behaviors.
Discuss the explanatory power of the Atkinson Shiffrin Model of memory
The Atkinson-Shiffrin Model of memory is powerful in its ability to delineate the stages of memory processing—sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory—providing a clear framework for understanding how information is processed, stored, and retrieved. It has been instrumental in shaping the study of memory, although it is complemented by more recent models that incorporate additional complexities and interactions in memory function.
Explain the concept of synaptic pruning and its significance in neuroplasticity.
Synaptic pruning is the process by which the brain eliminates weaker or less-used neural connections while strengthening the more frequently used ones. This process is crucial for optimizing brain function, enhancing learning efficiency, and ensuring that the neural networks that remain are more efficient and effective.