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"Intergenerational transmission"
The transfer of knowledge between generations in a family or community (between parents, children, grandparents, etc.)
Inuktitut
Language of the Inuit
2021 – over 39,500 speakers
97.6% of children can speak Inuktitut
Red river resistance (1869-1870)
Fear of loss of land, Métis resisted and declared their own government, Louis Riel, Leader
1870 – The Manitoba Act – Métis consulted with government officials to establish Manitoba as a province
Provisions for bilingual denominational schools, judicial and parliamentary systems, and measures to address their “Indian” title to the land, through the granting of 1.4 million acres of land to “the children of the half-breed heads of families” (Section 31)
Métis eventually pushed out of the area; government mismanagement results in agreement never being fulfilled
Erasure and Sanitized Indigeneity
Erasure
Removing all traces of Indigenous Peoples’ ways of being, doing, knowing (physically, emotionally, spiritually, and intellectually) from Indigenous homelands
Sanitized Indigeneity
A more palatable, “sanitized” version of Indigeneity geared towards non-Indigenous peoples, often far removed from real life
Example of “sanitized Indigeneity”
“Indian Village” at Brockton Point
Maintenance and Revitalization
Maintenance: A language is being spoken, and work and attention is paid to keep it going
Revitalization: bringing a language back to life – back from the brink of extinction
Cree
Most spoken language on the prairies
2021 – almost 60, 000 speakers across Canada
Slight decline, but stable
Blackfoot language fastest growing on the prairies
Northwest Resistance 1885
Métis and First Nations allies fought to maintain identity and formal title to their lands as promised
A series of violent interactions to secure land for white settlements
Resulted in the establishment of the official police force (NWMP)
Land purchases by white settlers, building of the CPR line
Louis Riel and Gabriel Dumont lead the battles
1885 – approx. 5000 military troops sent by Canadian government
Establishes the political relationship between Métis and First Nations and colonial forces
The False Creek/Kitsilano Reserve (No. 6)
When negotiating for the reserve lands, the Sḵwx̱wú7mesh inhabitants of Kitsilano Indian Reserve no. 6 (or Sen̓áḵw) were given an ultimatum:
“Either you take $11,250 (from the province) and $50,000 (from the federal gov) or you get nothing and we take the land anyway.”
Reclaiming / Land Back
2003 - The Sḵwx̱wú7mesh receive part of the land back
2025 - Construction to support Indigenous housing, resources, urban community
2026 - Applications and moving in
The state of Indigenous languages
More than 70 distinct Indigenous languages spoken
All are at risk; severely or critically endangered
BC, 34-36 reported Indigenous languages, most with fewer than 1000 speakers
Ojibway
Ontario – 15,000 speakers
Oji-Cree language extends between Ontario and Manitoba
Barriers to intergenerational transmission
Forces of modernization
Prevalence of more dominant languages in everyday life
Historical factors
Residential schools
Criminalization of ceremonies
Urban Indigenous Communities
Misconceptions – urban Indigenous communities are less “authentic”
Reality – urban Indigenous communities are diverse, interconnected, and around for a long time
Métis Nation BC
Uses same definition as Métis National Council
Clarifies: Unlike First Nations, Métis have Citizenship rather than Métis Status. Métis Citizenship is registered provincially by each of the Governing Members of Métis National Council (MNC). There is not a Federal or National Métis Registry
Language classifications (1)
Safe (5): The language is spoken by all generations. The inter-generational transmission of the language is uninterrupted
Stable yet threatened (5-): The language is spoken in most contexts by all generations with unbroken intergenerational transmission, yet multilingualism in the native language and one or more dominant language(s) has usurped certain important communication contexts. Note that such multilingualism alone is not necessarily a threat to languages
Vulnerable (4): Most, but not all, children or families of a particular community speak their parental language as their first language, but this may be restricted to specific social domains (such as the home, where children interact with their parents and grandparents)
Bill 101: The Charter of the French Language
Passed in 1977 in Quebec (still in effect today)
Intended to enhance the revival of the French language in Canada; to protect French as the official language in Quebec
Had a major impact on Indigenous Peoples because it made French the sole official language of Quebec
Limited access to English-language schools for Indigenous children
Manitoba Métis federation
2021 Manitoba Métis Self-Government Agreement
Recognizes the failure of the 1870 agreement
Attempts to address dispossession of lands, identity
2024 The Red River Métis Self-Government Recognition and Implementation Treaty
First modern treaty between the Métis and the Crown
Expected to pass (Bill C-21) in 2026 (currently in 2nd reading, House of Commons)
Goal: Re-establish homeland; unite Métis people
Métis Federation of Canada
Not currently accepting new membership according to website
Métis Nation of Canada (MNOC)
A person who identifies as Métis, who is the direct descendant of an Indigenous and European couple, and who can prove Metis ancestry through verifiable genealogical, historical and legal documents
A person can self-identify as Métis, however, self-identification alone carries no legal entitlement to recognition as a Métis person, to registration with the MNOC, or to claim rights inherent to the Métis
Language classifications (2)
Definitely endangered (3): The language is no longer being learned as the mother tongue by children in the home. The youngest speakers are those of the parental generation. At this stage, parents may still speak their language to their children, but their children do not typically respond in the language
Severely endangered (2): The language is spoken only by grandparents and older generations; while the parent generation may still understand the language, they typically do not speak it to their children, or among themselves
Critically endangered (1): The youngest speakers are in the great-grandparental generation, and the language is not used for everyday interactions. These older people often remember only part of the language but do not use it on a regular basis, since there are few people left to speak with
Extinct (0): There is no one who can speak or remember the language
Métis
Constitution Act Section 35 (2) recognizes Métis as Indigenous Peoples of Canada
Culture: Sash, Fiddling, Beadwork, Red River Cart, Red River Jigging, Bannock
Descendants of the Red River Settlement
Ancestors were the children of fur traders and First Nations (“Indian”) women (1600-1700s)
Predominantly Cree, Saulteaux, Dene / Scottish or French
R. v Powley [Powley Case 2003]
1993 – Métis hunters (Powley) killed a bull moose and were charged with hunting without a license
S.C.C. ruled Aboriginal right to hunt and harvest under §35 The Constitution Act
“test” to be considered Métis under this ruling: self-identify, have family ties to a historic Métis community in which ‘harvesting’ occurs, prove that harvesting occurred prior to Europeans, prove practice is integral to distinct culture, demonstrate continuity between practice and rights, be recognized by a Métis community
Métis National Council
Includes BC, Alberta, Saskatchewan, Ontario
“Métis” means a person who self-identifies as Métis, is distinct from other Aboriginal peoples, is of historic Métis Nation Ancestry and who is accepted by the Métis Nation”
Erasure of Indigenous Presence at Senáḵw
“Unsettling” the lands means removing all trace of Indigenous life from the area
Erasure means to “remove all trace” of Indigenous life