Introduction to Research
Independent vs Dependent Variables
Independent: The variable that is being manipulated or changed
Dependent: The variables that may or may not change, based on how to researcher manipulates the independent variable
What is Theory?
Theories organize and explain, they impose a framework on variables, which make things comprehensible
what is the process of consent?
participant's free, informed, and ongoing consent throughout the research process.
What are the mean, mode, and median?
Mean: Is the average score of the data set
Median: The number in the middle of the data set *if there is an even number of data scores, take the mean of the middle two sets.
Mode: the most common number in the data set.
What are P-values?
3 types of research and what they are used for
Qualitative: used for a smaller number of participants, looks at more of an individualistic approach, see if there is any common outcomes
Quantitative: used for a higher number of participants, very much data-based
Mixed Methods: A mix of both quantitative and qualitative
Research Proposals should include:
1. introduction with lit review and purpose statement
2. Proposed Methods
3. What you want to do
4. Proposed data analysis
what are the 3 core principles that convey the value of human dignity?
1. respect for persons
2. concern for welfare
3. Justice
What is Standard Deviation?
The square root if the variance.
Difference between type 1 and type 2 errors.
Type 1: the researcher makes the decision that manipulation or treatment has been successful when, in fact, it has not been.
Type 2: researchers make the decision that manipulation has failed when really it worked.
Internal versus External Validity
Internal Validity: The extent to which the results can be attributed to the treatments used in the study.
External Validity: The generalization of the results
Moderating vs Mediating Variables
Moderating: affects the direction and or strength of the IV-DV relationship, and explains when a relationship exists. It affects the strength and direction of that relationship.
Mediating: Stands between/intervenes between IV and DV and explains how/why a relationship exists. This shows the connection between two variables, and how they are related
What is Ethical Residue?
A type of ethical dilemma, where there might not be a satisfactory conclusion, yet the choice not to act is itself an ethical decision
What is Variability and How is it calculated?
Variability is the best estimate of the spread of scores
Step 1: Find the sum of the numbers in your data set.
Step 2: Calculate the mean of your data set.
Step 3: Subtract the mean from each number in your data set and square the result in each case. Then, find the sum.
Step 4: Take the total amount of numbers in your data set (N) and subtract 1 (always 1).
Step 5: Divide the number you arrive at in Step 3 by the number you arrive at in Step 4.
What is used to compare means and what are the differences between those comparisons ?
T-tests are used to compare means, but there are 4 different types:
1. independent t-test: used when the study has two groups of different participants
2: One- way ANOVA: used as an extension of the independent t test for when there are 3 or more groups or samples
3. Dependent t-test: when two data points are collected over time or when participants are exposed to the two experimental conditions
4: Repeated Measures ANOVA: an extension of the dependent t-test looking at 3 or more groups at a time.
Steps of the scientific method
1: Developing the Problem
2: Formulating the Hypothesis
3: Gathering the data
4. Analyzing and Interpreting the results
What is the difference between a primary and secondary source?
Primary: firsthand source of data, the original source study.
Secondary: the author evaluates and summarizes previous research, an example is a textbook.
What are the 6 common ethical principles?
1. Autonomy: to take action based on one's personal beliefs and values and make your own choices.
2. Nonmaleficence: obligation to not inflict harm upon others
3. Beneficence: obligation to act for the benefit of others
4. Justice: fair treatment of others
5. Fidelity: fulfilling one's responsibility of trust
6. Veracity: truthfulness
what are the 3 types of distribution?
1. Normal distribution: It provides a visual way to see how scores disperse from the mean. This is the 68%, 95% and 99% graph.
2. Skewness: Scores spread out more at one end of the distribution, there is positive and negative.
3:Kurtosis: peakedness of distribution, there is Leptokurtic, which is a few high scores, a few low scores and most scores are lumped together in the middle. Then there is Platykurtic, which is a wide range of scores and few of them are in proximity.
What are the 4 types of validity evidence and what do they examine?
1. Logical validity: Examine the logical flow of researchers’ arguments and decisions from the beginning to the end of their research. Think "does this make sense?"
2.Construct validity: Examines the tool used to measure your variables. Do the measures used by researchers actually measure what they intend to measure? *Nomological Network*
3.Internal validity: The researchers’ abilities to claim that any change in an outcome is the result of a treatment or intervention and not a result of other factors. *Bonus, can you remember the strategies for controlling internal validity threats?*
4. External validity: The researchers’ abilities to see similar success of the treatment or intervention with other populations, in other contexts, and across time. *Bonus, can you remember what WEIRD research stands for?*
What are the philosophical worldviews and what type of research do they fall under?
Post-positivism: based on the notion of a single reality and objective truth, quantitative
Constructivism: based on the notion of multiple realities and meanings as varied and multiple, qualitative.
Advocacy/Participatory: based on the notion that research needs to be intertwined with politics and political agenda, qualitative
Transformative: Same as advocacy/participatory, qualitative normally, but can be all 3.
Two-Eyed Seeing: Rooted in the belief that there are many ways of understanding the world, some represented by indigenous knowledge systems and others by European-derived sciences, all forms of research.
What type of research is this purpose statement promoting?
"The purpose of this non-experimental study is to examine the relationship between college students in class attendance and grades in courses"
Quantitative research
Ethical Decision-Making steps
1. Develop ethical sensitivity
2. Identify relevant articles from the code of ethics
3. Aside from the code of ethics, where else might you want to look for guidance? Ethical literature.
4. Consideration of your own personal bias, stress, and self interest.
5. apply fundamental ethical principles and theories to the situation
6. Develop an alternative course of action.
7. consult with trusted colleagues
8. Take action, with a commitment to assume responsibility. In other words, make your decision.
9. Evaluate the results of your actions (MOST IMPORTANT STEP)
How do you calculate correlation? (Pearson r)
Step 1: Calculate covariance
Step 2: Calculate the standard deviations of both X and Y.
Step 3: Find the variance (s2) of each.
Step 4: Calculate the standard deviation (s) of both X and Y.
Step 5: Multiply the standard deviation of X by the standard deviation of Y.
Step 6: Return to the formula and enter the values.
*example is in lecture 8 slide 30*
What is reliability and how is it commonly measured?
Reliability reflects the degree to which a measure is free from error variance (i.e., any conditions that are irrelevant to the purpose of the test)
The common methods used for estimating reliability are:
1. internal consistency: The consistency of scores within a test, or the degree of interrelatedness among items (i.e., extent to which items on a measure are measuring the same thing)
2. Test-retest reliability:Coefficient between scores on repetitions of the same test (i.e., a measure is given one day and then repeated at a later date)