Scientific Thinking
What are 3 components in the theory-data cycle?
Researchers use theories to generate hypotheses; collect data; revise theories
Why are personal experiences problematic as evidence?
They lack comparison groups; are confounded
What is the difference between measured and manipulated variables?
Measured = observed/recorded; Manipulated = controlled by the researcher
What was unethical about the Tuskegee study?
Participants were misled, denied treatment, and harmed.
What are 3 main ways to measure variables?
Self-report, observation, physiology
What is the difference between basic and applied research?
Basic = add to scientific knowledge; Applied = solve real problems
What is the role of a comparison group?
It helps evaluate the effect of variables by providing a baseline.
What is the difference between conceptual and operational variables?
Conceptual = abstract idea; Operational = how it is measured/tested.
Name one principle of the Belmont Report.
Respect for persons, beneficence, justice.
What is the difference between categorical and quantitative variables?
Categorical = categories of something; Quantitative = meaningful numerical values
Name one of the four norms of the scientific community.
Universalism; communality; disinterestedness, organized skepticism.
What is a confound?
Something that varies systematically with the independent variable in an experiment.
What are the three types of claims in psychology?
Frequency, association, causal
What ethical lesson came from the Milgram experiment?
Importance of informed consent; weighing harm vs benefit.
Name one type of quantitative variable
ordinal, interval, or ratio
What is the peer-review process?
Experts evaluate research manuscripts before publication to ensure quality.
What does it mean that research is probabilistic?
It explains patterns across groups, not every individual case.
Name the four types of validity.
Construct, external, statistical, internal
Researchers must balance _______ with __________.
risk to participants; benefit to society?
What are three things you need for construct validity?
Reliable measurement, accurate operationalization, evidence of validity
How does science differ from journalism?
Science is peer-reviewed and cumulative; journalism may oversimplify or sensationalize findings.
Name one bias in human thinking that affects evaluating research.
availability heuristic; confirmation bias; etc
What is one tradeoff between validities?
High internal validity may reduce external validity, and vice versa.
Name the 5 APA ethical standards
Beneficence and Nonmaleficence
Fidelity and Responsibility
Integrity
Justice
Respect for People's Rights and Dignity
What are the three types of reliability?
Test-retest, interrater, internal consistency