France (1774–1814)
This structural weakness of the Ancien Régime created long-term instability by privileging clergy and nobility while burdening the Third Estate.
What is the inequality of the estate system?
This industry was the first to industrialize in Britain, setting the pattern for factory production.
What is the textile industry?
This economic union helped unify German states economically before political unification.
What is the Zollverein?
This is the recommended first step in both Part A and Part B before writing, involving listing and ranking causes.
What is planning (listing and ranking causes)?
Industrial Revolution: This explains why railways were important to industrialization, linking transportation improvements to economic growth.
What is reduced transport costs leading to expanded markets and faster industrial growth?
“Although economic problems increased tension in France, the failure of Louis XVI was more important because it prevented effective solutions and intensified the crisis.”
What is an evaluation?
Why?
(It weighs factors and explains why one is more important)
This financial crisis, worsened by war debt and an inefficient taxation system, forced Louis XVI to call the Estates-General in 1789.
What is the fiscal crisis (state bankruptcy)?
This innovation, improved by James Watt, allowed factories to move away from water sources.
What is the steam engine?
This war (1870–1871) completed German unification and led to the creation of the German Empire.
What is the Franco-Prussian War?
This type of language should be used throughout answers to link causes together, such as “due to,” “led to,” and “as a result.”
What is connecting causes?
France: This explains how financial crisis contributed to revolution by increasing debt, forcing taxation issues, and leading to political conflict in 1789.
What is economic crisis leading to political instability and revolution?
“France faced a financial crisis, social inequality, and political instability, all of which contributed to the Revolution.”
What is a summary?
Why?
(Just lists causes, no judgment or prioritization)
This factor explains why revolutionary ideals in France spread across Europe despite military resistance, combining ideology with conquest.
What is the Concordat of 1801?
This transport development dramatically reduced costs and linked industrial regions in the early 19th century.
What are railways?
These measures, introduced under Metternich after 1819, attempted to suppress nationalism and liberalism, but ultimately failed to prevent their long-term growth in the German states.
What are the Carlsbad Decrees?
This is what you do in Paper 2 Part B. Explain the structure.
What is support and challenge with an evaluation?
Support Paragraph- Challenge Paragraph- Evaluation
Germany:
This explains how the Carlsbad Decrees unintentionally strengthened nationalism over time despite repression.
What is repression increasing resentment and strengthening nationalist identity?
“While industrialization improved wages for some workers, poor working conditions were the main cause and meant that the lower classes did not benefit overall.”
What is an evaluation?
Why?
(Balances both sides and makes a judgment)
This finance minister’s decision to publish state finances and his repeated dismissal undermined royal authority, contributing to growing public distrust and political instability before 1789.
Who is Jacques Necker?
This economic theory, associated with Adam Smith, supported minimal government intervention during industrialization.
What is laissez-faire capitalism?
This diplomatic crisis in 1867 demonstrated both the limits of French resistance and the growing strength of Prussia, contributing indirectly to tensions that would later lead to war.
What is the Luxembourg Crisis?
This key feature of a strong Part A answer ensures one cause is clearly prioritized over others.
What is choosing a MOST SIGNIFICANT CAUSE?
This historical thinking skill requires linking multiple causes together using phrases like “due to,” “which led to,” and “as a result” to show how factors interact.
What is connecting causes (cause-and-effect chain reasoning)?
“The Directory was weak, relied on the military, and faced corruption and instability.”
What is a summary?
Why?
(Describes features but does not evaluate significance)
This governing body illustrates the failure of moderate republicanism in the 1790s, as corruption, dependence on the military, and weak legitimacy paved the way for authoritarian rule.
What is the Directory?
This process helped drive industrialization by pushing rural workers off the land, increasing urban migration and creating a large factory labor force, especially in Britain. Connect two causes.
What is the Agricultural Revolution (or enclosure leading to urbanization)
These events—from Metternich’s repression to Bismarck’s manipulation of the Ems Telegram—illustrate this broader shift in how German unification was achieved over the 19th century.
What is the transition from failed liberal nationalism to successful state-led nationalism (Realpolitik)?
This writing move distinguishes the BEST responses by explicitly explaining why one argument outweighs the other, rather than just stating both. You need it to get a 4 or 5.
What is justified evaluation (explaining why one factor is more significant)?
These events—Luxembourg Crisis, Ems Telegram, and wars of unification—demonstrate how Bismarck achieved German unification through this strategy.
What is Realpolitik / using diplomacy and conflict to unify Germany?
“Although the Carlsbad Decrees limited nationalist expression, they were less effective than cultural factors because nationalism continued to spread through shared language and identity.”
What is an evaluation?
Why?
(Direct comparison + justification)