Stereotypes, Stigma, Prejudice, and Discrimination
Define stereotypes
A widely held belief or generalisation about a specific group of people.
Define Attitudes.
An attitude is an evaluation a person makes about an object, person, group, event or issue
Define Observational Learning.
Learning that occurs by watching others’ behaviour and the consequences of that behaviour.
Define Classical Conditioning.
Involuntary learning through the repeated association between stimuli.
Define Operant Conditioning.
Learning where behaviour is influenced by its consequences.
How can stereotypes lead to stigma?
When stereotypes are hurtful they may lead to negative views about a particular group / lead to people believing negative things about themselves, leading to feelings of shame.
What are the three components of Attitudes?
Cognition (thoughts), Affect (feelings), Behaviour (actions)
Explain what the "A" from ARRMR means.
A = Attention. This is the process of focusing on a model’s behaviour so it can be learned.
What happens in the Before phase of classical conditioning?
The Unconditioned Stimulus elicits the Conditioned Response. The Neutral Stimulus elicits no response.
What is the Antecedent?
The trigger for / stimulus that occurs before a behaviour.
Define prejudice, using the terms in-group and out-group.
Prejudice is a (negative) judgement made about a particular out-group by the members of an in-group.
Give an example of a consistent attitude.
(anything where Cognition, Affect, and Behaviour all align)
Explain what the first "R" from ARRMR means.
R1 = Retention. The ability to remember the observed behaviour for later use.
What happens in the During phase of Classical Conditioning?
The Unconditioned Stimulus and the Neutral Stimulus are repeatedly paired to elicit the Unconditioned Response.
What is the Behaviour?
The action performed by an individual (that the conditioner wants to either increase or decrease)
Differentiate between prejudice and discrimination.
Prejudice is a belief, whereas discrimination is behaviour.
Give an example of an inconsistent attitude.
anything where Cognition and Affect do not align with Behaviour.
Explain what the second R from ARRMR means.
R2 = The ability to imitate or perform the behaviour that has been observed.
What happens in the After phase of classical conditioning?
The Neutral Stimulus has become the Conditioned Stimulus to elicit the Conditioned Response (which is the same behaviour/action as the Unconditioned Response).
What is the consequence? What types of consequences are there?
The response to either increase or decrease the behaviour. Can be positive (adding something) or negative (removing something), in order to reinforce (reward) or punish (reduce) the behaviour.
Differentiate between direct and indirect discrimination.
Direct discrimination = treating a particular person/group differently. Indirect discrimination = treating everyone the same but consequently hurting/reducing the freedom of a particular person/group.
How do stereotypes and attitudes relate to each other? (2 ways)!
1) If enough people hold the same attitude, it can form a stereotype that spreads throughout a group or society.
2) If someone hears a particular stereotype, they may begin to believe/feel/act on that stereotype, forming an attitude.
Explain what the M and third R from ARRMR mean.
M = The willingness or desire to reproduce the observed behaviour.
R3 = A consequence that increases the likelihood of a behaviour being repeated. Can be self-reinforcement OR reinforcement by watching others (vicarious)
Explain how emotions can be used to increase or reduce prejudice via classical conditioning.
relevant example provided (e.g., negative emotions of News and Media; or, positive emotions of advertising)
Give an example of how Operant Conditioning can either increase or decrease discrimination towards a certain group.
relevant example provided in ABC format, e.g. peers criticising someone's racist comments online